a 






Tti^-^f. 



State Department of Public Instruction 



Studies in Educational Measurements in Wisconsin 

Bulletin No. 1 



A Report On 



The Use of Some 
Standard Tests 



For 1916-17 



By 

w. w. theisen 

Supervisor of Educational Measurements 



Issued by 

C. p. CARY 
State Superintendent 



Madison, Wisconsin 
1918 



A REPORT ON THE 

USE OF SOME STANDARD 

TESTS FOR 1916-17 



BY 

W. W. THEISEN 
Supervisor of Educational Measurements 



ISSUED BY 

C. P. GARY 
State Superintendent 



State Department of Public Instruction 

Madison, Wisconsin 

1918 



4 Table of Contents 

Page 

Chapter V. — Reading _^ 105 

The Median Scores by Cities 108 

The Distribution of Scores 111; 

What Elements in the Teaching of Read- 
ing or in the Reading Needs of Chil- 
dren Contribute to Differences in their 

Reading Acquirements? 114 

Some Suggested References 118 



INTRODUCTION 

The following pages aim to present some of the findings ar- 
rived at through the application of standard tests and scales to 
the measurement of results in school subjects in Wisconsin for 
the school year 1916-17. . It is in no way to be considered as a 
final report on the subjects included. Its conclusions must be 
regarded as tentative only. 

The work in standard tests and measurements instituted by 
the state department of education during the past year has as 
its primary aim the improvement of instruction. Its purpose 
is to discover, first, in objective terms, the degree of success 
achieved in the teaching of school subjects, and second, to point 
out possible means of improvement. 

To measure the achievement of pupils on a state-wide scale 
is an undertaking requiring no mean amount of labor. It is 
of course physically impossible for any one person to conduct 
standard tests in any large proportion of the schools of the 
state even in a few subjects. This has made it necessary to 
depend in no small measure upon the cooperation of others. 
Were all or even a large proportion of the teachers, principals, 
supervisors, and superintendents in the state trained in the su- 
pervision of instruction through standard tests and scales, it 
would be a relatively simple matter to ascertain the achievement 
of the children of the state in a number of subjects. In the 
absence of any such favorable conditions, no small portion of the 
time of the supervisor in charge of educational measurements 
has of necessity been devoted to the training of teachers, prin- 
cipals, supervisors, and superintendents in the field. To reach 
larger numbers in less time, this type of activity has been con- 
fined in the main to cities employing large numbers of teachers. 
The tentative Wisconsin standards of achievement in a number 
of subjects given in the pages following are consequently made 
up of figures representing pupils' scores in cities, except for the 
tests in spelling and handwriting, which were given in a large 



6 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

number of rural and graded schools as well, through the coop- 
eration and assistance of those in charge of these schools. 

The standards proposed in this report are to be regarded as 
tentative only. As teachers and superintendents become better 
trained in the application of tests and scales, and as more and 
more schools are included in the returns, the reliability of the 
results obtained will be increased. The present proposed stand- 
ards will have served a useful purpose if they tend to increase 
the accuracy with which pupils' products are judged, if they 
assist teachers in determining to a larger extent the degree of 
their teaching success, and if they suggest possible directions 
for improvement. 

For those who are not fully acquainted with the needs and 
possibilities of standard tests and scales in bringing about im- 
provements it may be well to indicate briefly some of the ways 
in which they are being employed. In the first place, the meas- 
urement of school products through the application of standard 
tests and scales represents an effort to measure success objectively 
in terms of the results achieved by the children. This removes 
two serious limitations to the older method of measuring results 
by examination. The two limitations of the older method are 
these: (1) teachers' judgments differ so materially as to what 
should be expected of a given grade of pupils that a fourth or 
a fifth grade standard of work does not mean the same thing 
in two schools; (2) teachers differ in their judgment of the 
worth of children's products. Standard measurements are be- 
ing utilized to fix more definitely the degree of achievement or 
standard to be reached in successive grades and to increase the 
reliability with which children's products are judged. 

The measurement of achievements in school subjects affords 
a means of discovering certain facts directly related to the super- 
visory and administrative program, and of evaluating the teach- 
ing methods employed. It is to the teacher that standard tests 
and scales are most helpful when properly used. . This is a fact 
as yet realized by few teachers. Progressive teachers and su- 
pervisors are making use of them to measure the attainments 
of classes in terms of some definite standard, as for example, to 
discover whether certain sixth grade pupils exceed or fall short 
of the standard of 25 on the Woody subtraction test. They em- 
ploy them to discover the range and variation of the perform- 



Introduction ^ 

ances of the individuals in a class, the seriousness of the over- 
lapping of performances from grade to grade, the progress from 
year to year or over some other given interval. 

The possibilities of standard tests as diagnosing instruments 
are just beginning to dawn upon many teachers and supervisors. 
They are being employed by some to aid in diagnosing class, 
group, and individual teaching needs, as for example, to find 
out how seriously progress in arithmetic is being affected by 
such matters as lack of facility in borrow^ing, pointing off, mul- 
tiplication or division of cipher quantities, inverting fractional 
divisors, or failure to estimate answers ; or how progress in his- 
tory or geography is affected by inability to comprehend the 
thought of what is read ; or how success in spelling is hindered 
by failure to acquire the habit of analyzing words for their diffi- 
cult parts ; or how inability to write a good composition is to be 
traced to failure to exercise the imagination, to think coherently, 
or to faulty mechanics. Standard tests and scales thus become 
a means of measuring the success of the methods of teaching 
used. They stimulate teachers to a more careful study of aims, 
methods, results, and class and individual teaching needs. Su- 
pervisors find them especially serviceable as time savers, enabling 
them to make more accurate observations of certain phases of 
the teaching in much less time than when each classroom must 
be visited one or more times. They apply standard tests to 
measure the success of different methods, of method versus no 
method, and of different courses of study. The results of the 
tests and the factors involved furnish a basis for discussion be- 
tween teacher and supervisor, or between the teacher and the 
pupil or the parent. They enable the supervisor to compare 
one school with another, or the school system with other school 
systems. 

From an administrative point of view, standard tests and 
scales are being used to establish a more equitable basis for pro- 
motion, to determine the desirability of promoting or trans- 
ferring individual pupils, or of promoting them in certain sub- 
jects. This is frequently done in spelling, where under an ar- 
rangement of parallel programs, each pupil takes spelling in 
whatever grade most nearly fits his ability to profit by the spell- 
ing teaching. Again, standard tests are used to locate unclas- 
sified pupils. The results furnish a basis in some schools for 



8 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

sectioning pupils for purposes of instruction into slow, average, 
and rapid advancement sections, or of placing them in special 
classes. Some schools in Wisconsin and elsewhere are begin- 
ning to employ standard tests for purposes of preliminary di- 
agnosis of pupils suspected of mental incapacity, or for select- 
ing pupils to be recommended for more complete mental test- 
ing. Standard tests are being used by others to determine the 
advisability of certain eliminations, additions, or changes in the 
course of study or in textbooks, either for the school as a whole 
or for certain groups of pupils. Many schools, for example, are 
finding it advisable as a result of test scores to omit many words 
previously included in spelling lists, to place the major emphasis 
upon words commonly used but misspelled, and to provide a 
more intelligent arrangement of review exercises in spelling and 
arithmetic. In some schools the test results furnish a basis for 
determining the time to be allotted to a given subject. Unusu- 
ally proficient classes or individuals may be excused for a time 
from regular spelling or writing periods, or again it may be 
found that certain classes or individuals could profitably give 
more time to thought reading. Others discover that it is advis- 
able to restrict the time given to subjects yielding but a small 
return on the time investment. 

One other significant application of standard tests is that 
made by the superintendent in reporting upon the success of the 
schools to the board of education or to the community. The 
results furnish tangible evidence of the successful achievements 
or shortcomings of the schools, and afford a basis for discussion 
with the boards as. to the need of additional expenditures for 
textbooks, supplies, and teachers' or supervisors' salaries. Some 
superintendents are still unnecessarily timid about applying 
standard tests lest it may appear that their schools are not up 
to standard or at least not up to the point of efficiency that the 
public has been led to believe. That this is a false attitude 
for a superintendent to take, thoughtful school people will 
readily agree. If the schools really are superior, standard meas- 
ures and tests will reveal the fact. If they are deficient at any 
point the condition, when recognized by the superintendent, 
can be remedied. 

In the preparation of the report contained in the pages fol- 
lowing the writer is indebted to the many superintendents, prin- 



Introduction ' 9 

cipals and teachers of the schools cooperating in giving the tests. 
He is especially grateful to Miss Elizabeth A. Ahern, statistical 
assistant, who made many of the tabulations and computations ; 
to Dr. B. E. Buckingham of the State Board of Education for 
many valuable criticisms and suggestions ; and to Mrs. Cecile 
White Flemming of the State Department of Education for a 
critical reading of the manuscript. 



CHAPTER I 



SPELLING 

Opportunity was given to each county, to a number of state 
graded schools, high schools,^ and cities to participate in a test 
in spelling. The purpose of the test was (1) to throw light on 
the spelling proficiency of Wisconsin children, and the probable 
causes of weakness; and (2) to stimulate interest in, and efforts 
toward improvement in teaching, through the scientific study of 
results. The test selected from the Ayres list of 1000 common 
words was uniform in all schools. In rural and state graded 
schools and in the case of several high schools, the test was sent 
out from the office of the state superintendent and was given 
under the immediate direction of the principals, supervisors or 
superintendents of these schools. The test in most city s6hools 
and in a number of high schools was given during the fall of 
1916 under the immediate direction of the supervisor of edu- 
cational measurements. In rural and state graded schools the 
test was given near the close of the first semester. 

The following letter was sent to each county superintendent. 

Office of the State Superintendent 

Madison, Wis., Dec. 19, 1916. 

We will appreciate it very much if you will cooperate with us to the 
extent of giving the accompanying spelling test in your schools. If 
you do not give it in all schools please arrange to have it given in the 
first fifteen schools, taking alphabetically the surnames of the teach- 
ers in your county. 

We enclose directions for giving the test and scoring the results, a 



^ Graded schools having two or more departments and not organized as 
free high school districts are commonly organized under the law as 
"state graded schools." Those of two departments are known as sec- 
ond-class graded schools and those of three or more as first-class. 
'iThis organization is common in villages. The term "high school" as 
used here refers to the elementary grades in schools of cities and towns 
organized as district free high schools. For the most part they include 
cities of 1500-3000 population. 



12 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



copy of which is to be sent to this office. The test is to be given with- 
out previous study. In order to make results comparable it should be 
given before January 13. 

We are enclosing also a questionnaire calling for certain data on 
the course of instruction in spelling in your schools. 
Yours very truly, 
Supervisor of Educational Measurements. - 

The questionnaire sought to discover certain facts as to the 
course of study and organization of the work in spelling and 
the relation of these facts to the results obtained in the test. 



Questions to be Ansicered With Respect to The Course of Study in Spelling 





n 


HI 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII vni 


1. How many minutes per week are de- 












2. What is the relative proportion of 
time devoted to oral and written 
















3. How many new words are taught per 
















4. What is the source of the words 
used. (Check V) 




























































5. What proportion of words is derived 
from each of the above sources 


































































































Spelling 



13 



The Test 

The words selected for the test were arranged in three groups 
of twenty-five words each. The words for grades III and IV 
were selected from the L list of Ayres scale, those for grades V 
and VI from the Q list and those for grades VII and VIII from 
the U list. 



Ayres Spelling M^ords 
Grades 



3 & 4 
catch^ 
warm 
clothing 
able 
suit 
watch 
fell 
buy 
walk 
soap 
small 
summer 
express 
lesson 
father 
table 
talk 
right 
road 
next 
four 
power 
because 
country 
another 



5 & 6 


7 & 8 


sometimes 


meant 


engage 


earliest 


terrible 


distinguish 


period 


consideration 


employ 


assure 


select 


probably 


firm 


foreign 


convict 


responsible 


command 


beginning 


crowd 


difnculty 


publish 


finally 


term 


develop 


relative 


issue 


entire 


material 


measure 


•mere 


serve 


senate 


remember 


respectfully 


effort 


agreement 


due 


unfortunate 


running 


majority 


position 


elaborate 


ledge 


citizen 


primary 


necessary 


Saturday 


divide 


information 


receive 



These words are selected from lists that have been standard- 
ized. According to Ayres each word in any one list presents 
approximately equal difficulty for children of a given grade. 
The averages which children in Wisconsin may be expected to 
reach on any given list are those attained by 70,000 children in 
84 cities throughout the United States. The average per cent 
expected in each grade when the pupils have completed just 
half of the work of the grade is as follows : 



Grades 
Av. % 



III 
._73 



IV 



V 
73 



VI 

84 



VII 
73 



VIII 

84 



^ Through an error in typing this word was given as cash instead of 
"catch." It is not probable that this has made the test more difficult. 



14 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

Instructions for giving the test 

The following uniform instructions were given to all schools. 

Paper- — See that all children are provided with paper of uniform 
size, preferably of large tablet size. 

Giving the test. 1. Have each pupil write his name, age, grade, 
school, whether boy or girl, and teacher's name at top of sheet. 

2. Pronounce each word distinctly, but do not syllabicate, or give 
phonetic sounds. Use each word in a sentence immediately after you 
have pronounced the word. 

3. Scoring papers — Mark all misspelled words. All words written 
over thus — as — are to be counted wrong.^ Mark the number correct in 
the upper right hand corner of each paper. Place the names of the 
children alphabetically on a sheet by grades, and enter opposite each 
name the number of words correctly spelled. Place the papers in a 
bundle with this sheet on top. Forward the papers to the superin- 
tendent's office as soon as possible. 

The Returns 

Returns were received from thirty-nine counties aggregating 
1173 one room rural schools, from 132 state graded schools, and 
from 35 high and city school districts. Returns were received 
from a few additional counties and state graded schools which 
could not be used owing to the fact that the scores for each grade 
were not entered separately. A few reported averages only. 
These were likewise of necessity omitted in making up the com- 
bined scores for the state. While it was suggested to county 
superintendents that fifteen schools (i. e. one room rural schools) 
would be a sufficient number it was gratifying to note that some 
gave the test in every school in the county. In a number of 
cases the results within the county were made the subject for 
discussion at institutes held during the year. This attitude upon 
the part of superintendents and principals can hardly fail to re- 
sult in an improvement in spelling in many parts of the state. 

The returns which were recorded in usable form represent in 
the aggregate 36,564 children distributed as follows : 

Rural 15,825 

State graded 7,465 

High and city _ 13,111 

1 Possibly a more satisfactory instruction would have been to mark 
all illegible answers wrong. This was discovered after the test had 
been given in a few schools, but it was deemed best to preserve uni- 
formity in the directions to all schools. 



Spelling 



15 



The Results 

The results are not particularly encouraging, a fact which may 
be judged from the average scores for each class of schools 
shown in Table I. They are in fact an indictment of the teach- 
ing of spelling in Wisconsin. The average scores attained in 
each class of schools, the combined score for all classes of schools 
and Ayres expected average may be seen in Table I, The aver- 
age score for each grade and Ayres standard are represented 
in graphic form in Figure I. 

Table 1. — The Average Ptr cent of Words Correct in Each Gla$» of Schooln 



35 cities and liigh schools 

132 graded scliools 

o9 counties 

(1173 rural schools) 

Combined average 

Ayres standard 



Ill 


JV 


V 


VI 


YII 


52 


74 


55 


72 


61 


64 


80 


59 


74 


67 


64 


79 


60 


71 


63 


59 


78 


58 


72 


63 


73 


88 


73 


84 


73 



VIII 



73 

78 
73 

74 
84 



Number 

children 

tested 



13,111 

7.465 

15, 825 

36,401 



Note: It should be recalled that in most of the cities the test was 
given during the faU months of the first semester. All but 8 of the 
35 cities are conducted on an annual promotion basis. From these facts 
it is estimated that the children in rural and state graded schools had 
completed on the average nearly one month more of the year's work 
than children in cities. Rural and state graded schools should be ex- 
pected therefore to attain an average score approximately 2% higher in 
grades three and four and 1% higher in the remaining grades. 

When compared with Ayres' averages attained by children 
in 84 American cities Wisconsin schools appear to be from one- 
half year to a full year behind. Children in cities do not appear 
to have spelled as well as children in rural and state graded 
schools. In tests of this sort some errors in scoring are apt to be 
made. It is assumed, however, that as many papers will be 
marked too low as too high. In that event the average is neither 
raised nor lowered. Unusual care was taken in some of the cities 
to insure accuracy in scoring. City scores may therefore be 
considered as somewhat more accurate than for other classes of 
schools. There is little reason to believe, however, that the fig- 
ures for rural and state graded schools represent greater leniency 
in marking. 



16 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



A question may be raised as to whether the scores made by 
our children are a reliable measure of their spelling ability. 
Undoubtedly more reliable results could be obtained by testing 
several times. While it was not possible to do this estimates 
can be made. By employing a method commonly used in statis- 
tics one may compute from the data of Table 2 the chances of 
making higher or lower scores on repeated tests.^ By this meth- 



100 
90 
80 
70 

60 
50 
40 
30 
20 



TTT 


11 




V 


VI 


VII 


VI T I 












^^ 


^--^ 


_^ 


..^ 


^^ 


^^^ ^,' 


^ .. ^^^^^ 


.^--^^ 




^-^^^ ,. 


,, '' 


""^^^ 


„,-- ' 


~~~-~_^ 


„'"" 






" 


-'' 




















Average 


for Wisconsin Sshools 






Ayres StEuidard 

























Tig I 



Averaga Spelling Scores in Eaoh Grade for All Schools 
Combined Compared with Ayrea Standard 



od the writer estimates that the chances are even that a truly 
lepresentative score in the third grade would not be above 
61.6% or below 56.8% i. e. 2.4% higher or lower. The chances 
are more than four to one that it would lie between 64% and 
54.4% i. e. not more than 4.8% higher or lower than the present' 
score of 59.2%. The chances are more than twenty to one that 
it would lie between 66.3% and 52.1% i. e. not more than 7.2% 
higher or lower. The chances are even that the true score will 
differ less than 2i/^% from the present score in any grade. 
From these facts it appears that no matter how liberal we may 
care to be Wisconsin children cannot be said to be good spellers. 
Why children in Wisconsin appear to be poorer spellers than 



^ The method based on the theory of normal distribution is that of 
computing the standard deviation, dividing it by the square root of the 
number of children and multiplying by .6745. The formula used is P. E. 
S. D. 

(probable error) = .6745 — T he standard deviation (S. D.) is the 

Vn 
square root of the sum of the squares of the differences between each 
individual score and the average. The S. D.'s in terms of number of 
words spelled by grades are: III. 7.13: IV, 5.55; V, 6.76: VI, 5.95: VII, 
6.55; VIII, 5.33. The corresponding P. E.'s are: .59, .45, .57, .51, .62 and 
.50 respectively. To convert these figures to terms of per cent multiply 
by four in each case. Thus, .59 X 4 = 2.36 or roughly 2.4 used in the 
computation aV^ove. 



Spelling 17 

children elsewhere is rather difficult to discover. " We in Wiscon- 
sin are certainly not willing to entertain even a remote idea that 
Wisconsin children are naturally inferior to children elsewhere 
in ability to spell. We are even reluctant to admit that spelling 
is not as well taught in Wisconsin as elsewhere. In the face of 
Ihe facts, however, it is difficult to escape the latter conviction. 
It is evident that two things will be necessary (1) a careful scru- 
tiny of the course of study in use, (2) an examination of the 
methods of teaching employed. 

One other factor that should be considered is the reliability 
of the standards established by Ayres. The words used in 
Ayres' list of 1,000 common words were originally given as tests 
in sets of 20 words in two consecutive grades in a large number 
of cities. Following this first test Ayres rearranged the words 
in sets of 20 and gave each set in four consecutive grades. The 
fact that all of the words used were not carefully tested in every 
grade made it necessary to estimate what children in some grades 
would do in spelling certain words. This may have resulted in 
setting standards that are too high in some cases. Ayres claims, 
however, that they are approximately correct if as many as 10 
words are used as a test.^ Further evidence in support of the 
standards was obtained in the course of the Cleveland survey, 
and in Baltimore and New York City. Using words that should 
be spelled by 73% of the children who have completed one-half 
of the grade, no grade in Cleveland was found to be more than 
3% below or above.^ Briggs and Bamberger tested among 
others 5,950 sixth grade children in New York City and Balti- 
more.^ The words used included all of those given to Wisconsin 
children in the fifth and sixth grades. By recording the per 
cent correct for each individual word it is possible to determine 
from their report the average for the 25 selected words of our 
test. The writer has computed the average for these words from 
their data and finds that the 5,950 children made an average of 
89.5%. These children were tested during the second half year 
of the grade and would be expected to reach a grade of approxi- 
mately 88 or 89%. If these children were able to reach Ayres 
standard there seems to be no reason why Wisconsin children in 
the sixth grade should not have made a better record than 72%. 



^ Ayres: A Measuring- Scale for Ability in Spelling-, p. 34. 
^Judd: Measuring the Work of the Schools, p. 87. 
3 School an«i Socifity Nov. 3. 1917. 



18 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



It should be noted, however, that Ayres makes the point that 
a test of words which should be spelled by 73% of the pupils in- 
cludes words varying from those to be spelled by 69% to those 
to be spelled by 76% of the pupils. This is a range of 7%. 
73% then signifies an average for the list. It is possible that in 
choosing the words for our tests a greater proportion of the more 
difficult words were selected. That such was the case is doubt- 
ful. The figures of Briggs and Bamberger indicate that our di- 
vision between easier and more difficult words for grades five and 

Table 2. — Dittribution of pupils' scores according to Ihe number of toorda 

correctly spelled 







List L 


List Q 


List U 


Number 


Per cent 












of words 


of words 














corr«ct 


correct 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 








112 


17 


61 


16 


16 


6 


1 


4 


146 


20 


104 


23 


38 


8 


2 


8 


131 


26 


148 


47 


60 


25 


3 


12 


163 


46 


155 


46 


64 


24 


4 


16 


167 


44 


145 


, 60 


89 


41 


5 


20 


173 


57 


197 


77 


100 


37 


6 


24 


222 


68 


199 


78 


99 


47 


7 


28 


179 


65 


202 


90 


111 


70 


8 


32 


213 


86 


227 


110 


153 


68 


9 


36 


238 


96 


259 


128 


152 


74 


10 


40 


228 


145 


262 


145 


162 


75 


11 


44 


216 


116 


260 


148 


212 


128 


12 


48 


251 


145 


246 


161 


231 


142 


13 


52 


243 


160 


255 


193 


205 


143 


14 


56 


269 


162 


301 


198 


245 


180 


15 


60 


283 


188 


309 


261 


267 


228 


16 


64 


295 


232 


299 


287 


296 


219 


17 


68 


286 


267 


332 


329 


283 


291 


18 


72 


323 


326 


322 


348 


313 


290 


19 


76 


323 


355 


291 


362 


311 


339 


20 


80 


342 


464 


331 


443 


324 


393 


21 


84 


332 


534 


324 


476 


340 


467 


22 


88 


369 


666 


292 


513 


330 


492 


23 


92 


413 


771 


326 


533 


270 


526 


24 


96 


354 


926 


293 


538 


239 


496 


25 


100 


357 


936 
6,918 


235 
6,375 


605 
6,215 


159 
5,069 


387 


Total. . . 




6,628 


5,196 









Average per cent 
correct 

Average numb'r cor- 
rect 

Median number cor- 
rect 



59.2 


77.5 


57.6 


72.1 


63. 


14.8 


19.4 


14.4 


18. 


15.8 


16.3 


21.7 


15.5 


20. 


17.1 



74.2 
18.6 
20.4 



Spelling 



19 



six was approximately equal. The range, however, was found 
to be greater than 7% as given by Ayres. The easiest word 
"sometimes" was spelled correctly by 97% and "information" 
the most difficult one by 78%. But even though our selection 
in some grades may have resulted in choosing a greater number 
of words of more than average difficulty it can scarcely account 
for differences as great as those between the averages attained 
by Wisconsin children and the standards set by Ayres. 

That not all children are poor spellers may be seen from Table 
2 giving the distribution of scores according to the number of 
words correctly spelled. There are a number of children in each 
grade who exceeded the expected average for that grade. They 
include children who are by nature endowed with greater 
spelling ability, children who are better graded, and children 
who have been better taught. 

Since there were 25 words on the test, each word is equivalent 
to 4 per cent. Hence children in grades three, five and seven 
who spelled more than l'8 words exceeded the average. of 73% 
set for these grades. Those who had 22 or more words correct 
in grade four equalled or exceeded the standard of 88% for that 
grade. Similarly children in grades six and eight who had 21 
or more words correct equalled or exceeded the standard of 84% 
for these grades. These children may be said to have spelled 
better than average children in American cities who have com- 
pleted one-half of the work of their respective grades. There 
are 14,887 of the 36,401 children, or slightly less than 41%, 
who spelled as well or better than Ayres average for American 
cities. These were distributed for each class of school by grades 
as follows (Table 3) : 



Table 3. — Number and x>«i' cent of Children iclio Sptlled as xcell or better 
than Ayres expected Mid-year Average 





Ill 


IV 


v 


VI 


VII 


VIII 

1 


T»tal 




No. 


% 


No. 


% 


No. 

682 
i 454 

656 
~?^92 


% 

37 
83 

29 


No. 

1,102 

607 

- 956 

T665 


% 

42 

48 
41 

Is" 


No. 

844 

473 

656 

1,973 


% 

39 

47 
35 
"39~ 


No. 


% 


No. 

6,825 
3,402 
4,660 


% 


Rural 

State 

Graded . 
Higrh and 

City 


1,204 
602 
684 


43 
48 

•28 
IT 


1,527 50 

730; 53 

l,042i 41 


1,166 
536 
666 


4S 
53 
41 


43 
46 
35 


Total.... 


2.490 


3,299 


48 


2,368 


48 


14,887 


41 



20 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

The proportion in cities is naturally lower because of the fact 
that the tests in cities were given somewhat earlier in the school 
year. 

There were pupils in each grade who failed on all of the words 
and others who spelled only a very few of the twenty-five words 
correctly. Still all were classified by their teachers and princi- 
I^als as pupils having third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh or eighth 
grade spelling ability. Obviously the term "fifth" or "sixth 
grade spelling ability" has little significance. Children in grade 
eight who spelled less than fourteen correctly i. e. an average of 
56% are to be considered as possessing not more than sixth grade 
spelling ability. Similarly children in other grades making very 
low scores are to be considered as possessing the spelling ability 
of average children several grades lower than that in which they 
are now found. Some teachers either have been negligent in 
their spelling requirements for promotion, or know little of what 
constitutes fourth grade, or fifth gr^de, ability in spelling. 
Others apparently have accomplished little in the way of teach- 
ing children how to spell common words. 

The results in each class of schools will be considered briefly. 
The results in rural schools 

The following table gives the average scores obtained in each 
county together with the combined result for all rural schools 
and the expected average. The highest and lowest scores for 
each grade are indicated in bold face. The rural school average 
for each county was obtained from the combined distribution of 
the scores for all rural schools reported from the county. 



Spelling 



21 



Table 4. — Average Ayres Spelling Scores in Rural Schools — By Counties 





Number 


List L 


List Q 


List U 


Number 


Counties 


of 
schools 








of 














children 




tested 


III 


IX 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


tested 


1 


15 


81 


90 


67 


83 


71 


79 


105 


2 


27 


78 


83 


68 


76 


82 


81 


245 


3 


59 


65 


80 


61 


79 


69 


80 


650 


4 


14 ' 


58 


78 


43 


74 


56 


64 


194 


5 


15 


53 


70 


37 


68 


56 


71 


203 


6 


13 


61 


73 


57 


72 


79 


70 


134 


7 


16 


48 


78 


49 


61 


52 


63 


218 


8 


15 


65 


79 


62 


70 


74 


89 


168 


9 


60 


55 


87 


58 


67 


59 


81 


1,398 


10 


65 


61 


79 


54 


70 


65 


74 


834 


11 


11 


61 


71 


64 


62 


48 


55 


166 


12 


31 


63 


78 


63 


78 


55 


73 


369 


13 


8 


46 


70 


44 


68 


46 


73 


118 


14 


125 


70 


77 


65 


70 


65 


70 


1,352 


15 


14 


50 


65 


44 


59 


61 


68 


220 


16 


8 


61 


80 


57 


54 


62 


71 


93 


17 


80 


63 


76 


59 


74 


67 


78 


827 


18 


8 


65 


90 


66 


83 


71 


86 


161 


19 


15 


60 


77 


58 


74 


60 


76 


256 


20 


63 


70 


83 


63 


75 


66 


77 


918 


21 


16 


60 


79 


47 


80 


44 


79 


156 


22 


11 


58 


82 


49 


53 


55 


77 


140 


23 


14 


72 


85 


67 


82 


70 


78 


177 


24 


39 


62 


74 


56 


68 


62 


71 


550 


25 


15 


71 


82 


49 


68 


62 


70 


190 


26 


15 


69 


74 


68 


72 


73 


78 


271 


27 


17 


65 


70 


53 


61 


56 


66 


1 266 


28 


69 


65 


77 


59 


66 


67 


73 


1,021 


29 


12 


82 


83 


78 


87 


81 


77 


155 


30 


9 


65 


70 


56 


75 


65 


61 


83 


31 


24 


69 


82 


61 


72 


57 


76 


284 


32 


24 


72 


79 


66 


79 


67 


75 


240 


33 


42 


56 


86 


60 


83 


59 


81 


322 


34 


6 


68 


86 


61 


78 


71 


82 


146 


35 


7 


33 


52 


50 


67 


52 


64 


113 


36 


16 


69 


68 


58 


80 


55 


73 


189 


37 


72 


59 


67 


57 


58 


58 


63 


649 


38 


94 


67 


84 


63 


74 


64 


75 


2,114 


39 


11 


49 


78 


77 


74 


66 


! 65 

1 
1 


130 


Rural school average 


64. 


79. 


60. 


71. 


63. 


73. 


15, 825 




i ^^ 


88 


73 


84 


73 


84 











22 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



Judged by Ayres standards rural children in Wisconsin do 
not spell well. They average not less than ten points below the 
standard in every grade. However, when compared with other 
classes of Wisconsin schools as will be seen from Table I, they 
are not conspicuously poorer nor better spellers than the pupils 
in the cities and villages. 

The fact that rural children spelled somewhat better than 
children in cities can be accounted for by the fact that the tests 
in most cities were given earlier in the year. 

If we consider that each list of words was given in two grades 
we may compare grade three with four, five with six, and seven 
with eight. Each of the advanced grades shows improvement 
over the three earlier using the same lists of words. It is notice- 
able, however, that grade eight has only attained Ayres standard 
for grade seven and that grade six does not quite reach Ayres 
fifth grade standard. 
The number of counties that reached Ayres standard 

The number of counties equalling or exceeding and the num- 
ber falling below Ayres expected for each grade are indicated 
in Table 5. 

Table 5. — Number of counties equalling or exceeding and number falling 
below Ayres Standard in each grade 





Ill 


IV 


V 


n 


VII 


VIII 


Number counties tested 


39 

3 
36 


39 

2 
37 


39 

2 

37 


39 

1 
38 


39 

5 

34 


39 


Number equalling or exceeding 

standard 

Number below standard 


2 
37 







It will be seen that very few counties reach the expected aver- 
age in any grade. Referring again to Table 4 it will be seen 
that only four counties, numbers 1, 2, 8, 18 and 29 reached the 
expected standard in more than one grade. The best showing 
is made by county 29 which exceeded the Ayres standard in four 
grades and did not fall less than seven points below in either 
of the other two grades. County 35 makes the very lowest scores 
in two grades and a poor showing in each of the other grades. 
Spelling is evidently better taught in some counties than in 
others. 



Spelling 



23 



Figure II represents graphically the average attainment for 
the 39 counties, the highest and lowest scores in each grade and 
Ayres standard. Were the children in each grade in every county 
able to spell as well as average children in the counties having 
the best spelling for each grade, Wisconsin rural children would 
be considered good spellers. 



100 
90 
80 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30" 
30 
10 



Jli- 



M- 



-m. 



_mi 



Average Score for 



All Counties Coal Inei 



Average of Rlgbest 
Average of Lowest 



County 
County 



Ayres Standari 



Tig. II 



The Average Spelling Score for 39 Counties, the Highest and Lowest Average 
Scores In Each Orada and Ayres Standard 



The results in state graded schools'^ 

The returns from first and second-class state graded schools 
have been combined and a single average obtained. The schools 
almost without exception have only annual promotions and the 
average scores may well be compared with Ayres standard 
which represent scores for children Avho have completed just half 
of the work of a grade. The averages attained by combining 
the results from all state graded schools are given below : 

Table 6. 



Grades 


Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


State Graded Averages 

Ayres Standard 


64 
73 


80 
88 


59 
73 


74 
84 


67 
73 


78 ■ 
84 



From Table 6 it will be seen that children in state graded 
schools are likewise below Ayres expected standard in every 
grade. The number of points below the standard varies from 



^ See first pag-e of this section for explanation of the term "state graded 
schools." 



24 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



six in grades seven and eight to fourteen in grade five. While 
the results compare favorably with those in other types of Wis- 
consin schools they are by no means satisfactory. 



The results in high schools and cities^ 

It will be recalled that the test in rural and state graded 
schools was given at a time when the children had spent approx- 
imately one-half year in the grade and that the standards estab- 
lished by Dr. Ayres are for scores made at that time. In sev- 
eral high schools^ and cities the test was given earlier in the school 
year and a fair evaluation of the work must therefor take ac- 
count of the date of the test. Among cities having only annual 
promotions, those tested during the first semester may be ex- 
pected to attain averages somewhat less than the standard, while 
those tested during the second semester should exceed it. In the 
case of schools having semiannual promotions it is estimated 
that the standard averages should be reached about November 
15th and April 1st for the first and second semesters respec- 
tively. For a test given at other times the expected average 
can only be estimated. To aid in making such estimates the 
standard averages, the average expected a full year earlier and 
estimated averages to be attained one-half year earlier or later 
are given in Table 7. 

Table 7. — Standard and estimated averages for successive half year^ 



Standard average 1 year earlier . 
Estimated average \ year earlier 

Standard average 

Estimated average \ year later. . 



Lis 


tL 


III 


IV 


1 
50 


73 


62 


81 


73 


88 


81 


91 



List Q 



58 
66 
73 
79 



VI 



List U 



VII VIII 



73 
79 

84 



58 
66 
73 
79 



73 
79 
84 



■• Unfortunately a few cities in which the test was given are not in- 
cluded. In some cases' the superintendent did not wish his school to be 
included because "^f the poor showing. In other instances complete re- 
tiirns were not received. 

2 The term "hig-h school" refers to schools in cities and towns or- 
ganized as district free high schools. 

3 Estimated averages ar^ cc^putf-d on the basis of normal probability. 
See any table of probability for the amount to be added or subtracted 
when estimating performnnnps at given times. Consult Ayres mono- 
graph, "Measurement of Ability in Spelling" p. 29f for the method used 
by Ayres in arranging his scale. 



Spelling 



25 



The average scores by cities arranged in approximate order 
of the portion of the work of the grade which pupils had com- 
pleted at the time of the test are given in Table 8. 

Table 8. — Average Ayres Spelling Scores in Cities 









List L 


List Q 


Lis 


t U 


Number 


Wis. 


Date 
Tested 


Section 
Tested 














of 


cities 














children 






^ 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


tested 


1 


9 28—16 


R 


39 


75 


47 


71 


51 


79 


248 


2 


10- 3—16 


B 


39 


68 


46 


75 


63 


70 


529 


3 


10-10-16 


B 


28 


71 


54 


70 


65 


64 


386 


4 


10-23—16 


B 


29 


50 


30 


76 


72 


72 


195 


5 


10-24-16 


B 


42 


61 


57 


65 


51 


56 


470 


6 


10—25-16 


B 


69 


76 


55 


70 


1 65 


81 


211 


7 


10—26—16 


B 


51 


74 


oo 


77 


1 62 


71 


351 


8 


10—27-16 


B 


41 


71 


54 


67 


64 


65 


179 


9 


11— ..—16 


B 


42 


75 


55 


71 


61 


81 


2,075 


10 


2— 5—17 


A& B 


61 


79 


49 


66 


61 


76 


1,868 


11 


12— 5—16 


B 


59 


79 


48 


74 


53 


65 


307 


12 


12- 8—16 


B 


50 


78 


57 


70 


57 


63 


439 


13 


12—13—16 
12—14-16 


B 
B 






74 
55 


80 

77 


73 
66 


84 
71 


124 


14 


69 




271 


15 


12-15—16 


B 


54 


60 


50 


74 


67 


81 


195 


16 


12-.. — 16 


B 


49 


6f 


53 


70 


65 


71 


200 


17 


12-..— 16 


B 


47 


73 


52 


79 


52 


73 


346 


18 


12— ..—16 


B 


60 


88 


76 


S7 


66 


74 


91 


19 


12 -..-16 


B 


65 


93 


50 


65 


65 


88 


114 


20 


12—15—16 


B 


65 


64 


60 


85 


66 


82 


175 


21 


12—28—16 
10_18— 16 


B 
A &B 


65 

47 


78 
69 










40 


22 


59 


74 


41 


72 


384 


23 


3-13— i7 


A&B 


55 


80 


53 


76 


52 




274 


24 


1-10-17 


B 


35 


63 


43 


73 


59 


80 


201 


25 


1—11—17 


B 


51 


67 


38 


67 


42 


62 


244 


26 


1—11—17 


B 


39 


79 


51 


66 


63 




119 


27 


1_11_17 


B 


71 


77 


44 


82 


80 


53 


85 


28 


1—11—17 


B 


74 


84 


(;5 


80 


68 


89 


155 


29 


11 16 


A &B 


64 


77 


74 


88 


74 




427 


30 


3—29—17 


A&B 


67 


82 


56 


75 


63 


71 


924 


31 


12— 5—16 


A&B 


53 


76 


64 


72 


77 


75 


765 


32 


12— 16 

12—20—16 


A&B 
A&B 


42 
52 


63 

82 


44 
64 


44 

74 






266 


33 


60 


'76 


253 


34 


4— 2-17 


A 


75 


80 


61 


73 


54 


82 


116 


35 


4— 5—17 


^ 


62 
52 


82 1 
74 


72 
55 


93 

72 


71 


89 


84 


Combi 


ned Average. 




61 


73 


13,111 


Ayres 


Standard . . . 




73 


88 

1 


73 


84 


73 


84 





26 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



The Mghest and lowest scores in each grade are set in bold 
face. They are summarized in Table 9. 



TablIe 9. — The highest and lowest average scores in each grade in cities 





Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Lowest % 


28 
75 


50 
93 


30 
76 


44 
93 


41 
80 


53 


Highest % 


89 







The lowest third grade average was 28% or more than 20% 
less than these children should have scored at the middle of their 
second year. The highest third grade score was 75%, only two 
points above the mid-year standard. It was made by a school 
that had completed approximately three-fourths of the year's 
work, and which should therefore have made a score still higher. 
The lowest fourth grade score is just 50%, or second-grade stand- 
ard. The highest is 93. One fifth grade averaged only 30%. 
The highest fifth grade average was 76%. In the sixth grade the 
highest score was 93% and the lowest 44. Grade seven varied 
from 41% to 80%, and grade eight from 53% to 89%. 

How it is possible for one school to score only 30% in the fifth 
grade or how another can fail to exceed 53% in the eighth grade 
when another makes an average of 89%, is difficult to compre- 
hend. Certainly the work in spelling either has not been wisely 
administered or has not been well taught in cities making an un- 
usually poor showing. Such results are unjust to the child and 
to the community which pays for his education. 

From Table 8 it will be seen that even allowing liberally for 
the time of giving the test few cities made a strong showing in 
any grade. No city exceeds Ayres standard in all grades. 
Three cities, Numbers 13, 18 and 29 equal or exceed it in three 
grades. Three others, numbers 19, 28 and 35 equal or exceed it 
in two grades. Four others, numbers 20, 27, 31 and 34 exceed 
it in one grade. The number of cities that reached or exceeded 
Ayres standard and the number that failed to do so for each 
grade is shown in Table 10. 



Spelling 



27 



Table 10.^ The number- of cities equalling or txceeding Ayres Standard 
and the number falling below in each grade 





III 


IV 


V 


J Vl^ 


VII 


VIII 


Number cities tested 


34 

2 

32 


33 

2 

31 


34 

3 

31 


34 

4 

30 


.j33 
29 


30 


Number cities equalling or ex- 
ceeding Ayres standard 

Number cities falling below Ayres 


4 
26 







When we consider the fact that a number of cities for each 
grade have not reached the standard which shouldliave been at- 
tained a year before, it can be said without gross unfairness 
that Wisconsin cities are lagging more than a half year behind 
the standard of American cities in spelling. Whether the sys- 
tem of annual promotions so prevalent in the state, the course 
of study, or the methods of teaching are the contributing causes 
is a matter which individual superintendents must seek to dis- 



cover. 



The combined Wisconsin score for each grade in cities, Ayres 
standard for each grade and his standard to be attained one year 
earlier are represented graphically in the figure following : 



2I1L 




Tig. Ill Th« Average Score for 35 Cities Conpared with Ayres Standard and the 
Standard to be Attained by the Saae Children One Tear Earlier 

Differences in success in spelling are due to several causes. 
Some teachers attempt to cover too much ground. The result 
of this is superficial teaching. Too often the words are poorly 



28 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



selected. This results in an emphasis upon words which chil- 
dren will have little occasion to use, and in the neglect of com- 
mon words which they ought to know how to spell. Some teach- 
ers do not expect as much of their pupils as others. In some 
cases the teacher misjudges the spelling ability of her pupils. 
This appears to, have been the case with many of the teachers 
whose pupils were tested. No teacher would knowingly be sat- 
isfied with such spelling ability as the test revealed in many 
schools. Teachers as a whole pay too little attention to individ- 
ual differences among their children. A teacher may regard all 
of her pupils as of fifth grade spelling ability, when as a matter 
of fact some are only the equivalent of third or fourth grade 
spellers, and others have the ability of sixth or seventh grade 
pupils. 

An illustration of the variation in average performances which 
may occur between buildings in the same city may be seen from 
the table below. The third grade in one building averages 19% 
and another 60%. One fourth grade averages 58% and another 
80%. Four of the highest scores for each grade occur in one 
building. The figures it must be remembered are for children 
in the same city, where standards of grading are supposed to be 
equal or nearly so in all buildings. More care in grading, how- 
ever, is a quite evident need in this city. It will be well for 
every superintendent to seek for efEeetive means of dealing with 
such situations. 



Table 11. — Average Ayres' spelling scores in different buildings of one city 











Buildings 










Grades 
















Average of 


1 


2 


3, 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


all buildings 


3 


44 


19 


35 


33 


46 


44 


60 


44 


43 


41 


4 


78 


68 


67 


70 


68 


72 


80 


5S 


77 


I 71 


5 


54 


46 


37 


51 


43 


50 


57 


41 


41 


47 


■6 


65 


72 


62 




68 


66 


67 


57 


73 


66 


7 


40 
61 


42 
60 






45^ 
63 


35 
51 


57 
56 


39 
60 


50 
61 


44 


8 






59 











1 Owing- to the form in which the report was made the results for this 
city are not included in the preceding- tables. 



Spelling 



29 



The variation within a grade and the overlapping of perform- 
ances from one grade to the next for another city may be judged 
from the distribution of scores for grades three, four, five and six 
in Table 12. Good, average and poor spellers are found in the 
same grades. 



Table 12. — Showing variationtcithin grades and the overlapping of per- 
formances for one city 



Number of 
words cor- 
rectly spelled 


Per cent of 
words correct 


List L 


List Q 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 







4 

8 

12 


23 
27 
24 
26 




2 
5 

10 
13 




1 






2 


3 
2 




3 


3 


4 


16 


17 


2 


12 


2 


5 


20 


20 


1 


13 


1 


6 


24 


17 


6 


13 


4 


7 


28 


22 


4 


10 


4 


8 


32 


15 


9 


14 


9 


9 


36 


22 


7 


15 


8 


10 


40 


11 


12 


10 


4 


11 


44 


13 


9 


18 


12 


12 


48 


18 


12 


16 


10 


13 


52 


17 


12 


13 


13 


14 


56 


17 


10 


22 


17 


15 


60 


18 


17 


11 


19 


16 


64 


17 


16 


22 


19 


17 


68 


15 


18 


16 


21 


18 


72 


13 


21 


14 


18 


19 


76 


8 


19 


11 


10 


20 


80 


17 


31 


17 


28 


21 


84 


12 


36 


18 


24 


22 


88 


18 


50 


13 


31 


23 


92 


6 


27 


14 


23 


24 


96 


7 


50 


13 


19 


25 


100 


6 


48 


13 


31 


Total 




426 


422 


348 


330 








Average % cor 


rect 


42. 


75. 


55. 


71. 







Since grades three and four were given the same test -these 
grades may be compared with each other, as may also five with 
six. There is a significant overlapping of one grade on another. 
Many third grade children exceed a large part of the fourth 



30 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

grade, A similar condition exists in the fifth and sixth grades 
as may be seen in Table 13. A considerable proportion of the 
third and fifth grades exceed the averages attained by the next 
higher grade in each case. There are many in the fourth and 
sixth grades who fail to reach the average attained by the next 
lower grade. 

Table 13. 

% of 3rd grade who exceed 4th grade average 17.4 

% " 4th " " fall below 3rd grade average 10.9 

% " 5th " " exceed 6th grade average 32.5 

% " 6th " " fall below 5th grade average 21.2 

% of 3rd grade who exceed lowest 25% of 4th grade 28.1 

% " " " " " " 50% " " " 11.5 

% " " " " " " 75% " " " 3.4 

% of 5th grade who exceed lowest 25% of 6th grade 47.6 

% " " " " " " 50% " " " 28.1 

% " ' " " 75% " " " 12.6 

More than a fourth of the third grade children exceed the 
lowest fourth of the fourth grade, 11.5% did better than half 
of the fourth grade. 3.4% did better than 75% of the fourth 
grade. In the fifth and sixth grades this overlapping is even 
more marked. Almost half of the fifth grade did better than 
the poorest fourth of the sixth, more than a fifth exceeded half 
of the sixth grade, and one-eighth did better than three-fourths 
of the sixth grade. More than 15% of the fifth grade children 
are above Ayres sixth grade standard. 

Superintendents should seek effective means of dealing with 
such situations as those in the two cities represented by Table 
11 and 12. Two administrative measures are being employed 
in some cities. One is to arrange the daily programs so that all 
spelling occurs at the same period of the day. A child studies 
spelling in whatever grade is most nearly his own level of ability. 
Another is that of housing several classes of the same grade in 
one building and then sectioning them according to ability. 
Children strong in spelling will quite frequently be found to be 
the same individuals who are strong in other subjects. When 
this is done the course of study can be more nearly made to fit 
the needs of each group. Children who are already able to spell 
many of the words which others are striving to master need not 



Spelling 



31 



squander time waiting for these poorer spellers. They may be 
assigned more advanced work or set at some other more profit- 
able task. 

The Questionnaire on the Course of Study in Spelling 

As stated previously schools were asked to report such facts as 
the time devoted to spelling, the number of new words taught 
per week, the sources of the words used, the proportion of words 
from each source and the relative proportion of time devoted to 
oral and written spelling. The purpose of asking for these 
facts was to discover what variations exist and what if any 
bearing these facts have upon the results obtained. In the case 
of rural schools, reports were submitted in many cases for each 
school rather than for the county as intended, thus greatly in- 
creasing the work of tabulating the returns. 



The Time Devoted to Spelling 

The median amount of time per week given to the teaching 
of spelling for 165 rural schools selected at random from 24 
counties, 29 state graded schools, and 21 high schools and cities, 
as reported by principals and superintendents, is shown in the 
accompanjdng table. The median indicates in each ease that 
one-half of the schools represented by the figures above devote 
more and the other half less than the figure given. The relia- 
bility of the figures is of course dependent upon the reliability of 
the reports submitted by teachers and superintendents. Only 
in some rural schools is there reason to believe that significant 
errors may sometimes have been made in reporting. 

Table U.—JVumber of Minutes per Week Devoted to Spelling 





11 


ID 


IV 


Y 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


165 rural schools 

State graded schools 


45 
50 
70 


50 
60 
75 


50 
75 
75 


50 
50 
75 


50 

67.5 
75 


50 
75 

85 


55 
75 


High schools and cities 


75 







The figures indicate that the typical school does not spend an 
undue amount of time on spelling. In fact the time is small, 



32 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



especially in rural schools. A reasonable amount is 75 minutes 
per week or 15 minutes per' day including both study and teach- 
ing periods. This means roughly 5% of the total school time. 
Schools which give much more time than that to the subject of 
spelling should stop to consider whether such a policy provides 
for a fair apportionment of the time among all of the subjects 
on the daily program. Some teachers reported several hundred 
minutes per week given to spelling in each grade. Superin- 
tendents should not tolerate such extravagant and unwise use 
of time. On the other hand, satisfactory results cannot be se- 
cured when too little time is allowed. It is not likely that any 
but unusually capable teachers can develop good spellers in less 
than ten minutes per day or three fifteen minute periods per 
week. Until such time as we have evidence to the contrary, it 
will be well to allow 15 minutes per day for the intensive teach- 
ing and study of spelling. The small amount of time given in 
some schools seems to indicate a tendency on the part of some 
teachers to rely upon the incidental teaching of spelling to 
secure satisfactory results. This is probably one of the causes 
contributing to poor spelling in "Wisconsin. 

The Record of Two Enrol Schools in One County 



Table 15. 



-The time devoted to spelling, the num'ber of new words 
taught per week, and the average scores in two 
rural schools in one county 







III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


School. 
A 


T 
~S60 

1o 


w 

~15 
~15 


A 


T 


W 


A 


T 

"350 
~65 


W 

~25 


A 


T 

loo 

"65 


W 

"so 


A 

~89 


T 

1 


W 


A 


T 

Iso 

"75 


w 

~io 

~30 


A 


B.... 


~30 


"I5 


89 


l~5 


~30 


60 


~80 



T=Number minutes per week, 
score. 



W=>f umber of new words per week. A = Average 



The need of standardizing the time devoted to spelling is 
strikingly portrayed in these two rural schools in one county. 
Both attempt to accomplish almost equal amounts of work as 
shown by the number of new words taught each week, yet school 
°A at the cost of much more time, accomplished on the whole 
far less than school B. The teacher in school B makes much 
better use of the time at her disposal. She is apparently a better 
teacher of spelling. There can be no doubt that much time is 



Spelling 



33 



squandered where such extravagance is shown as in school A. 
This is a serious matter particularly in rural schools where the 
number of days attended each year and the number of years a 
child remains in school are, on the whole, less than in other 
classes of schools. When spelling is well taught, fifteen minutes 
per day is ample time. When poorly taught, no amount of time 
will secure satisfactory results. 

The Time Devoted to Spelling and the Average Spelling Scores 
in Eight Counties 

Eight county superintendents gave averages only in reporting 
the time given to spelling in the schools tested. In some coun- 
ties, these averages are known to have been accurately computed, 
but it is feared that in a few the figures represent estimates. 
However, the average time as reported and the average score 
made on the test are given in Table 16 in the h^pe that other 
county superintendents may be induced to make a more careful 
study of the relation of time to results in spelling. 



Table 16. — The Average Time Devoted to Spelling and the Average 
Spelling Scores in Eight Counties 





Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Counties 


T 


A 


T 


A 


T 


A 

63 
60 
67 
66 
37 
64 
59 
58 


T 


A 


T 


A 


T 

40 
60 

150 
75 
60 
44 

1.0 
50 


A 


I 


30 
41 
100 
75 

* 

41 
150 
20 


70 
56 
81 
t)2 
53 
80 
65 
55 


30 
46 
100 
75 

42 
150 
25 


83 
3t) 
90 
74 
70 
88 
77 
87 


30 
61 
150 
75 
* 

63 

170 
30 


40 
72 

150 
75 
50 
48 

170 
30 


75 
83 
83 
6i 
68 
84 
66 
67 


40 
3rf 

150 
75 
60 
43 

150 
50 


66 
59 
71 
62 
56 
88 
67 
59 


77 


2 


81 


3 


79 


4 

5 


71 
71 


6 


72 


7 


73 


8 


81 







T— Time in minutes per weelc, 

A— Average % of words correct. 

*— Spelling tauglit in connection with reading. 

In Table 16, counties three and seven give more time to spell- 
ing than any of the others. Do they make the best showing on 
the test? County three makes the best score in the third and 
fourth grades. In the fifth grade, its score is low but still su- 
perior to that of the other counties. On the whole, this county 
pays high for results which, with two exceptions, are not above 
the expected average. In county seven, no grade reaches Ay res 



34 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



standard. This county likewise pays high for what it gets. In 
county five, spelling is taught in connection with reading 
through grade five. The unsatisfactory results in this county 
may be noted from the fact that it makes the poorest score in 
four of the six grades tested. The table indicates further that 
the best seventh and eighth grade scores Avere made in counties 
devoting not more than ten minutes per day to spelling. 

Time and Average Scores in Ten State Graded Schools 

Table 17 gives the time devoted to spelling and the average 
scores made in ten first-class state graded schools, (i. e. schools 
with three or more grade teachers.) 

Table 17. — T?te IHme Devoted to Spelling and the Average Spelling Score in 
Each Grade for Ten Fiist- Class State Graded Schools 





iir 


1 1 
IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 






























T 


A 


T 


A 


T 


A 


T 


A 


T 


A 


T 


A 


1 


100 


72 


100 


94 


125 


61 


120 


73 


125 


60 


125 


78 


2 


so 


60 


SO 


82 


30 


67 


75 


79 


75 


75 


75 


77 


3 


50 


74 


i 50 


96 


50 


50 


75 


92 


75 


66 


75 


75 


4 


50 


61 


, 25 


82 


25 


61 


25 


56 


50 


66 


50 


89 


5 


100 


76 


100 


97 


75 


47 


60 


65 


65 


73 


65 


63 


6 


100 


72 


100 


94 


100 


71 


100 


91 


100 


76 


100 


80 


7 


75 


68 


75 


75 


75 


52 


55 


80 


75 


74 


75 


84 


8 


75 


73 


75 


82 


75 


68 


75 


68 


75 


62 


75 


82 


9 


75 


57 


75 


90 


75 


55 


75 


80 


75 


79 


75 


80 


10 


75 


55 


50 


69 


50 


68 


50 


78 


75 


90 


75 


94 



T— Time in minutes per week. 
A— Average % of words correct. 



Here again it is evident that more time does not necessarily 
guarantee better results. The best scores in the three upper 
grades were made on a seventy-five minute per week schedule. 
The best scores in the third, fourth, and fifth grades were made 
in schools giving one hundred minutes per week. In grades 
three and four, however, they are only slightly superior to the 
averages made in schools in which spelling receives only one- 
half as much time. 



Spelling 



35 



Time atid Average Scores in Ten High Schools, and Cities 

Table 18 shows the number of minntes weekly given to spelling 
and the average scores on the test for 10 selected high schools 
and cities. 



Table 18. — Number of Minutes per Week given to Spelling and the Average 
Scores for Ten High Schools and Cities 



09 


11 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


s 


T 


T 
30 


At. 
61 


T 


Av. 


T 


Av. 


T 


Av. 


T 


Av. 


T 


Av. 


1 


25 


50 


79 


60 


49 


60 


66 


60 


61 


60 


76 


2 


75 


75 


62 


75 


82 


75 


72 


75 


93 


85 


71 


85 


89 


3 




75 


60 


75 


88 


50 


76 


50 


87 


50 


66 


50 


78 


4 


120 


120 


47 


100 


73 


175 


52 


200 


79 


140 


52 


125 


78 


5 


, , 


100 


75 


125 


80 


75 


61 




73 


70 


54 


75 


82 


6 


30 


50 


65 


75 


64 


75 


60 


100 


85 


100 


65 


100 


82 


7 


65 


75 


69 


125 


76 


75 


54 


100 


70 


100 


65 


100 


81 


8 


150 


150 


51 


125 


67 


125 


38 


125 


67 


125 


41 


75 


62 


9 


75 


100 


54 


100 


60 


100 


50 


60 


74 


60 


67 


100 


81 


10 




100 





115 




100 


74 


100 


80 


85 


73 


60 


84 



The figures give us further evidence that under present meth- 
ods of teaching spelling, a larger amount of time spent upon 
the subject is not necessarily rewarded by better results. In 
grade three the two schools that made the lowest scores give the 
most time to the subject. In grade four the two schools attain- 
ing highest averages do so on a 15 minute daily allotment. The 
lowest score was made on a schedule of 20 minutes per day. 
The highest fifth grade score occuri'ed in a school giving only 
10 minutes per day to the subject and the lowest in one giving 
25 minutes per day. The school giving the most time to spell- 
ing, 175 minutes per week or 35 minutes per day, attained an 
average score of only 52%. The two best scores in the sixth 
were made in schools giving 75 and 50 minutes respectively per 
week, i. e., 15 and 10 minutes per day. The school which gives 
200 minutes per week attains a score only slightly above the 
average of the ten schools. Again in the seventh and eighth 
grades some of the highest scores were attained where the time 
allotments are relatively short and some of the lowest scores 
were made at a relatively high time cost. 

The figures of Tables 17 and 18 seem to indicate that in these 
schools at least the results bear little relation to the time given 



36 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

to spelling. The correlations by the Foot Rule method are in- 
significant.^ 

The Sources of Words Used in Spelling 

The replies to the question calling for the proportion of words 
derived from the reading text, the spelling text and other sources, 
indicate that the first two of these are far more popular with 
teachers than the third. While time has not permitted a care- 
ful summary of the answers received from all schools, there is 
sufficient evidence to warrant the statement that reading texts 
are gvien an undue prominence as a source of spelling material. 
It is not unusual in lower grades to find that all of the spelling 
words are selected from the reading text. In upper grades the 
spelling text predominates as a source. There are very few 
schools that do not derive at least a part of the words taught 
from the reader. Of 300 rural schools selected at random, only 
9 do not use the reader as one source in some grade. Every one 
of 28 state graded schools and nearly all of the high schools and 
cities that answered the question, select some words from read- 
ers. The proportion ranges from ' ' a few " to ' ' all. ' ' The aver- 
age scores made on the test and the percentage of words taken 
from the reading text by two state graded schools that select a 
high proportion from the reader in every grade are shown be- 
low. Neither one of these two schools comes near the expected 
spelling average in any grade. 



^ Closeness of relationship is commonly computed mathematically by 
certain well known formulae. While a considerable number of cases 
should be used when computing correlations, the writer has taken the 
liberty to calculate correlation figures for Tables 17 and 18 by the 
Spearman Foot Rule method. By this method the schools are ranked 
in order in both factors. If each school held the same rank in both 
time and results the correlation would be said to be perfect. Perfect 
correlation "is represented by unity or 1. Zero represents no correlation 
and — 1 represents perfect negative correlation. The correlation thus 
obtained for Tables 17 and 18 when converted to terms of the Pearson 

coefficient by the formula r = 2 cosiHg ^(1 — ^R) — 1, are by grades: 

TABLE 18 

— .500 

— .338 

— .212 

— .153 

— .448 
.0 

— .275 



TABLE 17 




Grade III + 


.310 


" IV + 


.490 


V — 


.109 


" VI + 


.448 


" VII + 


.109 


" VIII 


.0 


Ave. + 


.208 



Spelling 



37 



Table 19. — Average Scores and tlie Per cent of Words Derived fi-om the 
Beading Text in Two State Graded Schools 





III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Schoo 


% R 


Ave. 


%R 


Av«. 


%R 


Aye. 


%R 


Ave. 


%R 


Ave. 


%R 


Ave. 


A 
B 


97 
50 


47 
61 


? 
86 


72 
69 


95 
86 


57 

47 


95 
86 


65 
o9 


to 

86 


36 
66 


90 
86 


69 
69 



% R = per cent of words derived from readinjr text. 

While no significant conclusions can be attached to the re- 
sults attained in these two isolated schools, there is good reason 
to believe that the question of the source of the spelling material 
and the results obtained on the test are intimately related. The 
unusual prominence given to the reading and spelling texts in 
Wisconsin appears to be a cause contributing to the poor show- 
ings made on the test. The writer regrets that time has not 
permitted the collection of sufficient detailed evidence on this 
point. Many teachers do not appear to realize that the vocabu- 
lary of the language used in the reader and that used by the 
child in his writing and in his thinking are materially different. 
Eeaders are written by adults, and too often in the language of 
adults rather than of children. Much of the subject matter 
deals with experiences foreign to most children. Teachers must 
seek to discover the words which children use when writing and 
that they will continue to use in later years. These are the 
words they need to know how to spell. Efforts must be made 
to enlarge the vocabulary used by children, but judgment must 
be exercised in developing it in the right direction. Precious 
time should not be taken up with the teaching of many words 
which children will never have opportunity to spell. 

Under the caption "other sources" the baneful influence of 
the Wisconsin State Fair list, especially in rural schools, is not 
infrequently noted. Geography, language, history, agriculture, 
arithmetic and physiology are mentioned as other sources of 
material. This represents an improvement, but many of the 
words in these sources are of a kind which the child will never 
be called upon to spell outside of the schoolroom. One county 
superintendent encourages the spelling of words which the child 



38 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

encounters in the home, on the playground, and in newspapers 
and magazines. He reports that "Children are assigned cer- 
tain work such as: 'Bring to class as many words as you can 
which you find used in the kitchen, at the table, etc. ' ' ' Here 
again caution must be exercised or unnecessary words will be in- 
cluded. In some cases children are encouraged to keep note- 
books for recording words which they do not know how to spell. 
In some schools where good teaching of spelling was observed, 
each child was being encouraged to keep an individual list of the 
words which he misspells in his written work. This method of 
selecting the words which each child needs to know should be 
encouraged. Some superintendents ask each teacher to prepare 
a list of the words which children misspell in written work. 
These are assembled and form the basic spelling list. This list 
is then supplemented by words occurring in some of the more 
scientific studies of spelling, such as those of Ayres, Jones and 
others. Such procedure in the selection of spelling material is 
altogether too rare. It is to be hoped that the results of the 
state-wide test will bring home to teachers and superintendents 
the necessity for a wise and careful selection of the words which 
children shall be taught. Teachers and superintendents will do 
well to become familiar with the scientific studies of common 
words in order that they may know what are the words that are 
most commonlv used and the number of them. They should 
make a careful study of the works of Jones, Cook and O'Shea, 
Ayres, Ballou, Pryor, Anderson, The Kansas City Committee 
on Spelliner, and others of a similar nature. A bibliography 
of these will be found at the end of the section on spelling. 

The Number of Nevv^ Words Taught 

Is it better to teach a few new words each day, or many? 
This is a question which should be faced squarely by every 
teacher of spelling. It is doubtful whether many teachers in 
"Wisconsin give it serious consideration. If the best teaching 
results are to be had by teaching ten or more new words each 
day, then it is certainly poor economy to teach only one or two. 
On the other hand, if the best results are to be had by teaching 
a few words thoroughly, it is unwise to teach a large number 
'V^^ith little concern for thoroughness,. This theory is supported 



Spelling 



39 



when we consider the results of the test in the light of the num- 
ber of words reported as taught in each class of schools. While 
it cannot be said that the attempt to teach too many words is the 
sole cause of poor results in spelling in Wisconsin, it is no doubt 
a contributing factor. That Wisconsin schools attempt to teach 
a large number of new words daily, if they report their prac- 
tices correctly, may be judged from Table 20. 

Table 20. — Median Number New Words Taught per Day 



Rural 

State Graded 

High School and City 



II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


3 


5 


6 


8 


8 


10 


4 


6 


6 


8 


7 


10 


3 


4 


5 


5-6 


7-8 


6-7 



VIII 



10 
10 

6-7 



The table is based upon the same 165 rural schools referred 
to in the section dealing with the time devoted to spelling, 29 
state graded schools and 18 high and cWj schools. Table 20 
gives the median number of new words taught daily in each class 
of schools. These figures mean that one-half of the schools rep- 
resented teach more than the number of words represented by 
the median, and the other half teach fewer. From grade three 
1o grade eight the median rural school attempts to teach from 
5 to 10 new^ words daily and the median state graded schools 
from 6 to 10. In high and city schools the median ranges from 
4 to 7. These numbers, paticularly in rural and state graded 
schools are high. They appear striking when we recall that one- 
half of the schools represented teach a still larger number of new 
words daily. 

There are rural schools for each grade that report 20 or more 
new words taught daily. The highest number reported from 
state graded schools ranges from 10 in the second grade to 20 in 
the eighth. In high schools and cities the highest number re- 
Dorted is 6 in the second. 10 in the third, 13 in the fourth and 20 
in grades five, six, seven and eight. Some of those who report 
the largest numbers are probably including words children have 
already been taught in some earlier grade. Often, however, the 



40 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



teacher has no knowledge of what words were taught in preced- 
ing grades. 

Table 21 shows for the schools of Table 18 the number of new 
words taught daily as well as the number of minutes per day 
allotted to spelling and the average scores on the test. 



Table 21. — T7ie Number of Neic Words Taught, the Numher of Minutes 'per 
Bay Allotted to Spelling and the Average Scores on the Test in Ten Cities 



Clti's 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 














































T 


W 


A.V. 


T 


w 


A.V, 


T 


W 


Av. 


T 


W 


Av 


T 


W 


Av 


T 


W 


A.V. 


T 


W 


Av. 


1 
2 
3 


5 
15 


1 
5 




6 

15 
15 

?4 
20 
10 
15 
30 
20 
20 


2 

I 

5 
4 
4 

8 
3 


61 

e-" 

60 
47 
7t 
65 
69 
51 
54 


10 
15 
15 
20 
25 
15 
2- 
25 
20 
23 


2 

5 
8 
5 
5 
5 

g 

4 
5 
13 


79 

n 

8S 
731 
80, 
fii' 
7fi 
67 
60 


12 

15 
10 
35 
15 
15 
15 
25 
20 
20 


"3 
5 
8 
6 
5 
6 
8 
5 
8 

23 


49 
T> 
76 
52 
61 
60 
54 
38 
50 
74 


P 
15 

10 
40 

■'6 

20 
25 
12 
50 


3 

6 
% 

15 
8 
7 
8 
6 
8 

17 


66 
93 

87 
79 
73 
85 
70 
67 
74 
80 


12 
17 
10 
28 
14 
20 
20 
25 
12 
17 


4 

8 
8 
8 
6 
7 
9 
6 
8 


61 
71 
66 
52 
54 
65 
65 
41 
67 
73 


12 
17 
10 
25 
15 
20 
20 
15 
20 
12 


4 
8 
8 
9 
6 
7 
9 
6 
9 
? 


76 
89 
73 


4 
5 


24 


5 




73 
82 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 


6 
IS 
30 
15 


2 
7 
3 
3 




82 
81 
62 
81 

84 






...|....| 





It is clear that most of these schools attempt to teach more 
new words than modern theories of teaching spelling uphold. 
One is amazed at the variations in the conceptions which super- 
intendents have of the number of new words that should be 
taught. The least variation from 4 to 9 occurs in the seventh 
and eighth grades. The widest variation is found in the fifth 
grade where one school requires the teaching of three new words 
daily, and another twenty. " School number one teaches only a 
few words daily and gives but a small amount of attention to 
spelling. It made a rather low score on the test. Several fac- 
tors may enter into this low record. In the first place we have 
no data on preceding years. While the words now taught are few 
in number, they may be poorly selected. The teaching may cen- 
ter too largely upon unusual words rather than upon common 
words which children need to know how to spell. This school 
miffht profit by a more generous time allotment and a better se- 
lection. Finally the methods of teaching employed should be 
investigated. In school number eight, which made a very poor 
record on the test, the number of new words taught is less than 
in most schools of the table and the time given to spelling is lib- 
eral. Poor teaching is apparently the most significant cause of 
poor results here. 



Spelling 41 

The Total Number of Words to Teach 

At the rate of two per day, approximately 2,500 words, i. e. 
words tliat are new and which present ditiicuities, can be pre- 
sented by direct teaching during tlie elementary school course. 
Many more will, of course, be learned incidentally. At the rate 
of ten per day, this number would be increased by 10,000. The 
latter is a figure much larger than necessary to meet the demands 
of the child's written vocabulary. Careful studies of the writ- 
ing vocabulary of children and adults indicate that the words 
which people use are fewer in number than we ordinarily sup- 
pose. Jones^ found only 4532 different words used in the 75,000 
themes written by 1,050 children in grades two to eight inclu- 
sive. No child used more than 2,812. Ayres,- in a study of the 
spelling vocabulary of 2,000 personal and business letters, found 
542 common words. Cook and O'Shea^ found 5,200 different 
words in the family correspondence of 13 adults. Eldridge* 
records 6,002 different words in a total of 43,989 words which 
occurred on two pages of each of four Sunday papers of Buf- 
falo. This number would have been somewhat smaller had he 
not included as separate words every form or variation of each 
word that occurred. The teachers in Boston^ working under 
the direction of Mr. Ballou found 840 words that proved to be 
difficult for pupils to spell in their written work. These form 
the minimum list for the Boston schools. 2,542 additional 
words are used to form a supplementary list. In an extended 
investigation of the ' ' words actually used and missed by pupils ' ' 
in original compositions, the teachers of Kansas City, Mo.,° un- 
der the direction of Mr. Melcher found 1,926 words missed three 
times or more. This list has recently been increased to 3,262. 
Anderson'' in a recent study at the University of Iowa analyzed 



* Jones. Concrete Investlg'ation of the Material of English Spelling. 
W. F. Jones. Vf^rmilHon. S. D. 

^ Ayres. Spelling- Vocabulary of Personal and Business Letters. 
3 Cook fi: O'Shea. The Child and .His Spelling — Bobbs. Merrill Co., 
Indianapolis. 

* Eldridge. Six Thousand Common English Words — Niagara Falls, 
1911. 

° Boston. Spelling. Dept. of Educ. Investigation & Measurement, Bui. 
I & TV. 

« Kansas City. Preliminary Report of the Committee on Spelling, Re- 
search Bulletin, No. 2. 1916. Also final report of the Committee on 
spelling, 1917. (Unpublished.) 

'' Anderson, W. N. The determination of spelling vocabulary based 
upon written correspondence. Univ. of Iowa Doctor's Dissertation. 1917. 



42 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

the written correspondence of persons over 18 years of age in 
SIX occupational groups. 3,723 letters were collected by pupils 
m 23 Iowa cities and villages. The letters represented 361,184 
running wprds, but 77 different words made up one-half of the 
total number and 442 three-fourths of them. There were 9,223 
different words in all, 3,217 of which were used only once. Mr. 
Anderson selected 3,105 words for his final list choosing those 
that occurred in three or more of the occupational groups and 
with a total frequency of five or more. Starch^ tabulated 1,000 
running words from each of 40 contributors to current maga- 
zines. He found 5,903 different words, 1,783 of which occurred 
three or more times. Words appearing less than three times 
were not placed in the final list unless they occurred in the study 
of either Ayres, Jones, Eldridge or Cook and O'Shea at least 
three times and were found by another of them at least once. 
His final list contains 2,626 words. 

The results of all but the three last mentioned and of 
seven other lists have been summarized by Pryor.^ He finds 
only 1,309 words occurring in six or more of twelve lists. All 
of these studies emphasize the fact that the writing vocabularies 
are limited and nowhere nearly as comprehensive as the ordinary 
spelling text would have us believe. This makes it incumbent 
upon teachers to exercise caution in selecting the words to be 
taught as spelling. While several of the studies referred to 
above may be criticised on the ground that they omit some rather 
common words, it is probable that the needs of most children 
will be satisfied when they acquire a writing vocabulary of three 
to four thousand words. This does not mean that a child is to 
be taught to think entirely in terms of ideas that can be expressed 
by this number of words. A distinction must be made between 
teaching words to be spelled and teaching words for growth in 
vocabulary and in ideas. Many of the latter he will not need 
to learn to spell. He should be taught to spell those words 
which he is likely to use in writing. 



- An unpublished study of the vocabulary of current literary writers 
by Daniel Starch, University of Wisconsin. 

8 Pryor. A sug-gested minimal spelling list. Sixteenth Yearbook of 
the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I, Public School 
Publishing- Company, Blooming-ton, 111., 1917. 



Spelling 43 

The Methods Used in Teaching Spelling 

Undoubtedly one significant cause of poor spelling is poor 
teaching. It is the consensus of opinion of the supervisory 
staff of the State Department of Education, that spelling is one 
of the poorest taught subjects in the curriculum. The work of 
hundreds of teachers is observed in the classroom each year, but 
comparatively few teachers are found who teach spelling well. 
In fact it may be said that in a large percentage of the cases, 
spelling is not taught at all. The assignment of the lesson is 
frequently of this type: "Take the first column of words on 
page eighteen. ' ' After ten minutes permitted for study, a writ- 
ten test is given on the list of ten words. A pupil who has ten 
correct receives a mark of one hundred for the day, and one 
who misspells three words receives a mark of seventy. Here the 
lesson ends. The next day the same routine procedure is re- 
peated. This is not teaching, and no teacher should receive a 
salary for such gross incompetency. 

Some of the more successful teachers of spelling first of all 
exercise wisdom in selecting the material to be taught. Second, 
they attempt to adapt the material used to the needs of the indi- 
vidual children in the class. There is little merit in requiring 
a pupil to spend time in studying words which he already knows 
how to spell. To expect him to divide his time equally between 
each of the words in a spelling list is sheer waste of valuable 
time. His time should be spent upon those which he does not 
Imow, with the greater emphasis upon the more difficult of these 
words. The studies of Buckingham^ and Ayres^ have indicated 
clearly that words which might be regarded as equally difficult 
do not prove to be so. Teachers should seek to discover which 
are the truly difficult words. These will require greater effort 
and more drill for successful mastery. 

Tidyman in the issue of School and Society for June 30, 1917, 
gives a useful table for estimating the relative difficulty of words. 
In this table, reproduced in a modified form below, a word mis- 
spelled by 97% or more of the pupils in a grade is considered 
as having a difficulty of 10 for that grade. A word missed by 



'Bucking-ham: SpeHing Ability; Its Measurement ajid Distribution, 
Teachers CoUege, N. Y. 

*Ayres: Measurement of Ability in Spelling-, Russell Sage Founda- 
tion, New York, 1915. 



44 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



less than 5% in the third grade has a comparative difficulty of 
2. Thus a word missed by nearly all in the third grade is ap- 
proximately 5 times as difficult (the ratio of 10 to 2) as one that 
nearly all can spell. In grades four and five the ratio would be 
10 to 4, i. e. 214 times as difficult. 

Table 22. — A Table for Determining the Difficulty of Spelling words 



Per cent of incorrect spellings. 




Relative 


Difficulty 


















Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


100—97 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


96 89 


9 
8 


9 

8 


9 

8 


9 

8 


9 
9 


9 


88-73 


9 


72-51 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


50—29 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


7 


28—13 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


12 5 


4 
2 


4 
4 


5 

4 


5 
5 


6 
5 


6 


4— 1 


5 



Successful teachers of spelling employ good teaching methods. 
They spend a greater proportion of the time set aside for spell- 
ing in the actual teaching of spelling and only a small part of 
the time in testing, i. e. in written spelling. Some test the work 
of an entire week at one time. Thus four periods are given to 
teaching and one to testing. This not only allows more time for 
teaching but affords better opportunity to discover whether a 
pupil has really mastered a word. 

Successful teachers see that impelling motives for wanting to 
learn how to spell are established. An appeal is made to the 
child's normal instincts and interests. His desire to learn how 
to spell may be influenced by his desire to excel in the spelling 
recitation or the spelling contest. It may be increased by a 
wholesome desire to be able to express himself more fully in his 
written work. He may be interested in improving his own 
ability to spell, particularly if he is taught to keep records which 
indicate the amount of his improvement over a given period 
of time. 

Good spelling teachers are careful to associate each new word 
with the child's previous experience so that the word becomes 



Spelling 



45 



full of meaning for him, and becomes a part of his writing 
vocabulary. They make use of each of the avenues of approach 
to children's intellects. Some children may learn to spell a word 
more easily through seeing it in written form, and attempting 
to recall the picture of it later. Others may benefit most 
through hearing it pronounced clearly and distinctly, while 
others again may grasp the sequence of the letters through pro- 
nouncing the word themselves. For still others, ease of learn- 
ing is facilitated by writing the word or tracing it. 

A successful teacher of spelling does not fail to take account 
of the fact that some parts of the word are much more diffi- 
cult to the child than others. She trains a pupil to analyze 
each word which proves troublesome, in order to discover the 
particular parts or combination of letters which present the diffi- 
culty. Some teachers when writing new words on the black- 
board indicate the difficult parts by colored crayons. The need 
of examining words for their difficult parts may be illustrated 
from a few test papers. The different frequencies of the several 
misspellings which occurred on these words serves to indicate 
that some parts of a word are much more difficult to master than 
others. The incorrect spellings by 258 eighth grade pupils on 
10 selected words and the frequency of each misspelling are 
given in Table 23. 



Table 23. — Showing the Misspellings "by 258 Eighth Grade Pupils on Ten 
Selected Words and the Frequency of Each Misspelling 



earliest 




probley 3 


divide 




be^rinning 




earlyest 


17 


probabUy 3 


devide 18 




beg-ining- 


57 


earlest 


12 


probable 2 


devid 




begenning' 


4 


ealiest 


2 


probbably 2 


devive 




beganlng 


2 


earlist 


10 


probely 2 


divid 




beg-ianing 


2 


earlists 


4 


probibly 2 






begening' 




earlelst 




propaly 2 


responsible 




beginng 




earleast 




probabily 


responcible 


13 


beginnigin 


S 


earlyiest 




probabaly 


responsable 


10 


begning 




eariliest 




probabley 


responseable 


.5 


hegglng 




earliest 




prohabyly 


respondsible 


4 


beggining' 




earilist 




probily 


responible 


5 


begaining 




earilistist 




probobly 


responable 


2 


begeaning 




eariest 




probbely 


responcibel 




dlfficnltr 




earlerest 




probabely 


responsuble 




dlficulty 


IS 


earlys 




probbubly 


responsble 




diffuculty 


9 


earlry 




probiablly 


responsibble 




diffaculty 


7 


erleast 




problably 


responsibly 




difflcullty 


4 


elarelest 




problay 


responciable 




diffculty 


4 


ealerist 




proberably 
proubably 


responsiable 




difucalty 


3 


probably 




responiable 
responisable 




difflculity 
difaculty 


2 
2 


probaly 


20 


propably 


respondsable 




diffeculty 


2 


probly 


17 


propibly 


respounsiple 




difficult 




probbly 
probaUy 


9 
6 


propley 
brobely 


respuancable 




diflcult 
difficultle 





46 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



difficultly 

dificulity 

difficuily 

difficulting 

difflcality 

diffacullty 

diffaculity 

diffucalty 

diffucaly 

diffulty 

diffuclt 

diffculity 

difcolty 

defuclity 

deffeculty 

divaculty 

differculity 

finally 

finaly 43 
finely 11 
finnally 11 
flnnaly 5 
finialy 4 
flnially 2 
final 
flnily 
finealy 



finanlly 
finial 

respectfully 

respectfuly 

respectably 

respectifuly 

respectively 

respectually 

respectufuly 

respectifully 

respectally 

respectly 

respectibly 

rspecfuly 

respecfully 

respectufully 

respectully 

respectafully 

respecfuly 

respecufuly 

respicfully 

respectiful 

respectbly 

respectable 

respectably 

respectaly 

respectily 

respectiveally 



respectivaly 




nessaceray 


respeatfuly 




nessecry 


respacile 




nessecty 


reseptfuly 




nesesary 


receptfully 




nesecery 


repefully 




nesacesary 


refebling 




neseratory 
nesser 


necessary 




neccasary 


neccessary 


14 


neccisary 


nessary 


10 


neccecary 


nessesery 


6 


neccessary 


nessecery 


4 
4 


neccary 
nececcary 


nessessary 


necesarry 


nescessary 


4 


necacery 


nessisary 


3 


necessisary 


nessasary 


3 


necessarily 


neccesary 


3 


neceessary 


nesscary 


2 


necceary 


nesseccary 


2 


neasary 


neseccary 


2 




nesessary 


2 


receive 


nesscessary 


2 


recieve 54 


necssary 


2 


recive 5 


nessesary 




recieved 2 


nessacary 




recived 


nessicary 




recivice 


nessacery 




receieve 



In the word earliest the most frequent misspelling occurs in 
the letters lie. The ear and st are much oftener correct. Incor- 
rect pronunciation seems to account for such misspelling of 
probably as probaly given twenty times and probly fifteen times. 
Of the 51 children who misspelled responsible, 42 did so on the 
letters si; 16 used c instead of s. The parts respon and ble were 
usually correct. Beginning illustrates the difficulty of the 
double consonant. 67 of the 73 pupils who spelled the word 
incorrectly neglected to double the n. In difficulty incorrect 
vowels, and neglecting to double the / account for the principal 
missf)ellings. In finally most children who erred knew the first 
three and the last two letters but they did not know what comes 
in between. They doubled the n or did not double the I or they 
had difficulty with the vowel a. One source of error on respect- 
fully is in the double Z but another is undoubtedly due to not 
knowing the pronunciation of the word. Substitutions of s for c 
or vice versa and double consonants appear to be the most fre- 
quent causes of incorrect spelling on necessary. The chief 
difficulty in divide is in the first vowel given as e. Another 
error comes through the silent letter. Receive was most often 
misspelled as recieve. Familiarity with the rule that e precedes 
I after c would help these childern. 

This study of incorrect spellings indicates very clearly that 
not the entire word but distinct parts of it cause misspellings. 



Spelling • 47 

Very rarely does the beginning and the end of a word offer 
difficulties. The difficulty may arise from double consonants, 
obscure or silent letters, pronunciation, vowels or consonants 
pronounced alike. Another cause of misspelling not illustrated 
by these words is that of homonyms. 

In addition to the points already indicated in good teaching 
of spelling, it should be noted that many successful teachers do 
not expect to teach children all the words they will ever use. 
They train the pupils to use the dictionary when uncertain as to 
the spelling of a word. They acquaint pupils with a very few 
of the simplest rules. 

Conclusions 

1. The schools of each class represented, fail to reach the ex- 
pected spelling average in any grade. 

2. There is a wide range in the average scores made, indicat- 
ing that results are much more satisfactory in some schools than 
in others. 

3. There is a wide range in the spelling abilities shown by 
pupils nominally classed as being of the same grade. In nearly 
every grade there are some children who failed entirely. There 
are others in every grade who made perfect scores. Being in a 
grade apparently means little as far as spelling is concerned. 

4. Among high schools and cities there are few schools that 
attain expected average standings in any grade, even when due 
allowance is made for the time of the year when the test was 
j)iven. Comparatively few reach the expected average in any 
grade. 

5. There is a wide difference in the time allotted upon the 
Aveekly program to spelling. The time most commonly allotted 
in each class of schools is : rural 50 minutes ; state graded 75 
minutes ; high schools and cities, 75 minutes. 

6. Schools vary widely in the number of new words which 
they attempt to teach per week. The median numbers in rural 
and state graded schools are higher than in high schools and 
cities. The median numbers for the various grades vary in 
rural schools from 5 in the third grade to 10 in the eighth, in 
state graded schools from 6 in the third to 10 in the eighth, and 
in high schools and cities from 4 in the third to 7 in the eighth. 



48 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

7. The principal sources of words used are the reading text 
and the spelling text. 

8. Among the apparent causes of poor results in spelling are : 

a. The attempt to teach a large number of new words 

each day rather than a few words well. 

b. The selection of words largely from the reading and 

spelling texts, and with little regard for pupils' 
need of knowing how to spell them. 
e. Improper grading of the children. 

d. Inefficient teaching of spelling, including : 

(1) A disregard for differences in the individual 

needs and the ease with which children may 
be taught. 

(2) A cHsregard for differences in the difficulty 

of the words taught. 

(3) A disresrard for differences in the difficulty of 

the different parts of a word. 

(4) An entire absence of actual teaching in many 

cases. 

(5) A poor command of the technique of the 

teaching process. 

e. Failure to teach spelling as a regular subject. 

Recommendations 

1. That the time devoted to spelling, including both study and 
recitation, be 15 minutes per day in all grades above the second. 

2. That teachers attempt, through the direct teaching of spell- 
ing, to equip children with a vocabulary of 3,000 to 4,000 com- 
mon words. Not more than four new words should be taught 
daily. 

3. That in selecting the words to be taught, the more scientific 
studies of spelling vocabulary be freely consulted. 

4. That the reading text be rarely used as a source of words 
to be taught for spelling, and that only such spelling textbooks 
be used as are based upon scientific inquiry as to the words which 
children need to learn how to spell. 

5. That teachers require each pupil to keep an individual list 
of the common words which he misspells in written work, and 
that this means be used to discover the individual needs of each 
child. 



Spelling 49 

6. That the results of studies in the relative difficulty of words 
be freely consulted in order to determine more fully the relative 
teaching efforts to be devoted to different words. 

7. That wherever feasible, pupils be grouped for the purpose 
of spelling with others of somewhere near their own ability, irre- 
spective of the normal grade in which they may belong. 

8. That in the teaching of spelling, modern methods of pre- 
sentation be used, 

a. First of all, care should be exercised to develop im- 

pelling motives within the pupils for wanting to 
know how to spell, e. g. those produced by such 
factors as interest in improvement, rivalry, and the 
desire to express one's self more fully. 

b. Second, each new word should be carefully associated 

with the child's own experience so that he may 
understand its uses. 

c. Third, each of the known avenues of approach should 

be utilized. Appeals should be made through the 
eye. the ear, the vocal cords, and the hand. 

d. Fourth, pupils should be taught the habit of analyz- 

ing a word for its difficult parts and to concentrate 
upon the particular syllables, or letter combina- 
tions, which make the word difficult. 

Some Suggested References 
The Words To Teach 

Anderson, W. N. The Determination of a Spelling Tocatulary Based 
Upon Written Correspondence. University of Iowa, Department of 
Education, Doctor's Dissertation. Contains in addition a brief re- 
view of all important previous studies of spelling vocabularies. 

Ayres, Leonard P. Measuring Scale for AMlity in Spelling. Russell 
Sage Foundation, Division of Education, N. Y. Contains 1,000 
common words. 

Boston, Department of Educational Investigation and Measurement 
Bulletin No. I or No. IV, Spelling. Contains minimum and sup- 
lementary lists. 

Cook & O'Shea. The Child and His Spelling. Bobbs Merrill Co., N. 
Y. Contains a list of words used in family correspondence. 

Eldridge, R. C. Six Thousand Common English Words. R. C. Eld- 
ridge, Niagara Falls, N. Y. 

Johnstown, Pa. List of Words Selected by the Teachers of Johnstown, 
Pennsylvania. Contains words used in daily lessons. 

Jones, F. W. Concrete Investigation of the Material of English Spell- 
ing. Vermillion, S. D. Contains words found in written themes. 

Kansas City, Mo. Preliminary Report of the Committee on Spelling. 
Research Bulletin No. 2. Contains words which children use and 
misspell in original compositions. See also mimeographed final 
. report of the committee. 



50 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

Pryor, H. C A Suggested Minimal Spelling List in Sixteenth Year 
Book, National Society for the Study of Eduoaiion. Public School 
Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. 

Starch, Daniel. List of words derived from literary productions, Sil- 
ver Burdett & Co. (in press) 

Determining the Difficulty of Words 

Ayres, L. P. Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. Russell Sage 

Foundation, N. Y. 
Boston, Department of Educational Investigation and Measurement 

Bulletin No. IV. Spelling, Determining the Difficulty of Spelling 

Words. 
Buckingham, B. R. Spelling Ability: Its Measurement and Diairibu- 

tion. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, N. Y. 

Methods of Teaching Spelling 

Boston, Department of Educational Investigation and Measurement. 
Bulletin No. XI. The Teaching of Spelling. 

Buckingham, B. R. Spelling. This is Chapter III in Teaching Ele- 
mentary School Subjects, by Rapeer and Others. Published by 
Scribners. 

Charters, W. W. Teaching the Common Branches, Chapter I. Hough- 
ton Mifflin Co. 

Cook & O'Shea. The Child and His Spelling. Bobbs Merrill Co. 

Janesville, An Educational Survey of. See Chapters VIII and XIII. 
State Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wisconsin. 

Suzzallo and Pearson. Comparative Experimental Teaching in Spell- 
ing, Teachers College Record, Nov. 1911. 

Suzzallo, Henry. The Teaching of Spelling. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

Wisconsin Manual of the Elementary Course of Study, Spelling. De- 
partment of Public Instruction, Madison, Wisconsin. 



CHAPTER II 

ARITHMETIC 

Arithmetic is a "tool" subject. For that reason if for no 
other it should be taught in the most economical manner possible. 
It is not uncommon for schools to devote as much as one-sixth 
of the entire school time of the elementary grades to the subject 
of arithmetic. The wisdom of such a profuse time allotment is 
questioned by school men and women. Their questions are 
mainly three : ( 1 ) ' ' Is it necessary that the course of study in- 
clude as much arithmetic as it now does?" (2) "Is this gen- 
erous time allotment rewarded by a corresponding success in 
arithmetical achievements of the children?", and (3) "Is so 
much time required to attain such success ? ' ' The first of these 
questions has been propounded for some years and is resulting 
in the elimination of some subject matter regarded as nonprac- 
tical. Careful students predict a much greater elimination than 
has yet taken place. How far this can be carried is yet to be de- 
termined by experimentation. The standard tests given in Wis- 
consin schools in 1916-17 have among other things attempted to 
answer in part the second of these questions. The data gath- 
ered in answer to question two serves to throw some light on 
question three. 

In measuring success in arithmetical achievement certain 
standardized tests have gained rather wide usage. For measur- 
ing the work in fundamental operations at least two series of 
tests are in common use. These are the Courtis and the "Woody 
tests. For measuring success in reasoning problems a number 
of tests have been devised, the best known being the Stone test. 
The Courtis tests consist of a series of relatively simple examples 
in the four fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, 
multiplication and division. With these tests successful achieve- 
ment is measured by the speed with which the examples are 



52 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

solved. The number of "Wisconsin schools reporting their re- 
sults on the Courtis tests in 1916-17 was not sufficient to war- 
rant us in discussing the results at this time. 

The Woody tests in the fundamentals consist of a series of 
four tests, one for each of the fundamental operations. The ex- 
amples in these tests are so selected as to include a variety of 
types from very simple to relatively difficult examples. Achieve- 
ment on the "Woody tests may be measured by the difficulty of 
the examples which a given class can solve, or by the number of 
examples solved. The latter gives a fairly accurate indication 
of the difficulty of the examples which the class can solve. The 
nature of these tests may be judged more fully from the repro- 
duction of the test in multiplication which follows. 



Multiplication 














(1) 

3X7 = 


(2) 

5X1 = 


2 


(3) 
X 3 


= 4 


(4) 
X 8 = 


(5) 
23 
3 


(6) (7) 
•SIO 7X9 = 
4 


50 
3 


(9) 

254 

6 


(10) 

623 

7 




(11) 

103H 

8 


(12) 

5096 

6 


(13) 

8754 

8 


(14) (15) 

165 235 

40 23 


(16) 

7898 

9 


(17) 
145 
206 


(18) 

24 

234 




(19) 

9.6 

4 


(20) 
287 
.05 


(21) 
24 

24 


(22) 
8 X 5i = 


(23) 
li X 8 = 


(24) 

16 

2* 


(2^) 
J X i = 




(2fi) 

9742 

59 


(27) 
6.25 
3.2 


(28) 

.0123 

9.8 


(29) 
4X2 = 


(30) 

2.49 

36 


(81) 
12 15 

25 32 ~ 


= 


(32) 
6 dollars 49 . 
8 


jents 


(33) 
24 X 34 


(34) 

= 4X4 = 










987i 
25 


(86) 
3 ft. 5 in 
5 




2i 


(37) 
X 4i X li 


= 


(38) 

.09634 

.084 


(3§) 

8 ft. 94 in. 

9 



The Achievements of "Wisconsin Children on the Woody 

Tests 

Fifteen cities reported their results in addition; sixteen in 
subtraction; fifteen in multiplication and seventeen in division. 
In some cities each of the four tests were given and in others 
only one or two. The returns represent twenty-one cities in all. 
The writer directed and assisted superintendents and principals 
in the giving of the tests in all but three of these cities. In these 
three cities the tests were given by principals or superintend- 



Arithmetic 53 

ents after a conference with the writer in which the details of 
giving and scoring were discussed. The test sheets were cor- 
rected by the teachers who were provided with a set of answers. 
They were instructed to check the papers a second time. In a 
lew cities the papers were examined by a second person. This 
should have been done in all. However, in a number of schools 
a casual examination of papers to detect inaccuracies in scoring 
seemed to indicate that errors of this sort approximately bal- 
anced each other, i. e., as many were scored too low as too high.' 
It is possible that in some schools the rating of papers by teach- 
ers has resulted in scores that are too high. 

The distribution of the scores on the test for each fundamental 
operation is shown in the tables following. These tables indi- 
cate the number of children in each grade solving each of the 
possible numbers correctly, e. g. The distribution for the ad- 
dition test reads as follows : In grade three, five pupils had none 
correct, seven had one correct, four had two correct, etc. In 
grade four two pupils had four correct, one had five correct, etc. 
The total number of pupils tested in each grade, the median 
scores and Woody 's standard median scores are shown at the 
foot of each table. 



^ There are those who would have all papers corrected by disinterested 
parties but in that case much of the benefit to be derived from a test 
is lost to the teacher who has little opportunity to discover the peculiar 
weaknesses of the children in her class. The best results will be had 
where careful directions are given to the teacher who scores the papers 
for her own room, and where all papers are carefully rechecked by a 
single person. 



54 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



Table 24. — Distribution of Scores in Wood'!/ Arithmetic Test Series A. 
According to Number of Examples Correct 



Addition 



Subtraction 



No. 














No. 














problems 


Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


problems 


Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


Vli 


VIII 


correct 














correct 














Q 


5 

7 

4 

7 

9 

17 

17 

20 

24 

45 

67 

81 

114 














1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


8 

28 

27 

16 

7 

12 

15 

31 

42 

62 

99 

134 

109 


3 
10 
5 
6 
6 
9 
8 
10 
14 
18 
29 
35 
50 






















1 
3 
2 
1 


1 






2 
















3 












2 
1 








2 

1 














5 














6 










2 
2 
2 

""a 

6 
8 


2 
1 
1 
1 
3 
4 
7 




1 




1 
2 
5 

11 
9 

14 


1 










8 












Q 


2 
2 
3 
4 












10 








1 

1 
4 


1 


n 










12 


3 




1 


1 


13 


92 


18 


8 


1 




1 


13 


149 


52 


19 


3 


1 




14 


98 
98 


42 
64 


10 
21 








14 

15 


110 
107 


73 
92 


20 
38 


9 

12 


1 
4 


2 


15 ■ 


1 






1 


16 


118 


88 


37 


4 


3 


2 


16 


90 


111 


36 


6 




2 


17 


96 


115 


35 


12 




1 


17 


82 


111 


87 


26 


3 


4 


18 


91 


134 


66 


10 


3 




18 


43 


123 


103 


30 


8 


1 


19 


93 


126 


79 


33 


5 


5 


19 


44 


156 


127 


67 


10 


6 


20 


86 


143 


109 


S3 


8 


1 


20 


26 


148 


184 


58 


21 


13 


21 


54 


170 


141 


44 


15 


8 


21 


22 


118 


154 


63 


22 


11 


22 


42 


124 


132 


64 


25 


9 


22 


3 


56 


130 


73 


32 


23 


23 


20 


101 


126 


79 


18 


16 


23 


2 


37 


119 


97 


52 


23 


21 


4 


67 


87 


96 


37 


19 


24 


1 


23 


60 


103 


52 


29 


25 


5 


39 


68 


88 


34 


30 


25 




6 


40 


107 


69 


28 


26 


1 


21 


73 


76 


44 


32 


26 




5 


28 


105 


92 


54 


27 




9 


44 


86 


61 


43 


27 




1 


19 


99 


98 


69 


28 




9 
11 

1 


49 
29 
31 


84 
101 
93 


77 
68 
89 


51 
46 
66 


28 
29 
30 






15 

7 
3 


98 
99 
69 


91 
83 
83 


81 


29 






92 


30 




2 


92 


31 




4 


26 


99 


108 


93 


31 






1 


33 


92 


SS 


32 






22 


76 


123 


126 


32 






1 


38 


75 


94 


33 






11 


81 


108 


111 


33 








25 


60 


83 


34 




1 


5 


67 


102 


110 


34 






1 


18 


43 


82 


35 






5 
3 
1 


51 
24 
21 
6 


109 
81 
38 
21 

1 


130 
111 
70 
35 


35 








5 


22 


5i 


36 














37 








38 








39 










Total 


1,315 


1,332 


1,230 


1,333 


1,178 


1,116 


Total 

Median . . . 


1,269 


1,317 


1,227 


1,256 


1,020 


935 


Median ... 


15.5 


20.2 


22.7 


28.4 


31.9 


33.1 


13.3 


18.1 


20.8 


25.6 


28.4 


30.3 


Woody's 














Woody's 














Standard 














Standard 














Median... 


14.5 


18.3 


23.1 


29.8 


32.4 


34.0 


Median... 


11.2 


15.7 


20.4 


25.0 


28.5 


31. T 



Arithmetic 



55 



Table 25.— Distribution of Scores in Woody Arithmetic Test Series A: 
According to Number of Examples Correct 



Multiplication 



Division 



No. 














No. 














problems 


Ill 


IV 


V . 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


problems 


Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


correct 














correct 

















57 
?fc 
44 

88 
87 
80 
79 
80 
64 













1 
2 
3 
4 
5 



18 
23 
32 
27 
29 
44 
38 


11 
8 
8 
20 
17 
21 
37 
















1 


1 










2 


3 
5 
8 
18 
31 
31 
49 






1 
1 
3 
3 
9 








3 


1 

1 

7 
6 
4 
5 








1 


















5 
6 














2 






1 












7 
8 


45 
45 


46 

78 


10 
20 


1 
4 






8 


2 


2 




1 


1 


9 
10 


58 
35 


40 

57 


9 
11 


2 
3 






9 
10 


51 
42 


101 

148 


32 
35 


4 
10 










2 




11 


50 
37 


69 
?3 


11 
20 


2 
2 






11 

12 


31 

99 


145 
179 


40 
74 


11 
15 


1 
5 


i 


12 


1 


1 


1 


13 


24 


70 


42 


4 


2 


1 


13 


14 


154 


82 


15 


3 


2 


14 


23 


97 


41 


11 


1 


1 


14 


9 


141 


78 


27 


6 


1 


15 


15 


93 


72 


13 


4 


1 


15 


3 


118 


91 


27 


11 


5 


16 


14 


100 


83 


11 


2 




16 


3 


104 


88 


31 


8 


3 


17 


13 


99 


110 


22 


3 


i 


17 


4 


93 


98 


52 


16 


6 


18 




95 


148 


35 


4 


2 


18 




84 


109 


51 


16 


7 


19 


8 


64 


129 


37 


4 


2 


19 




55 


116 


54 


26 


22 


20 


2 


53 


133 


50 


1 


3 


20 




51 


134 


79 


37 


21 


21 


5 


32 


102 


58 


14 


5 


21 




47 


104 


79 


43 


22 


22 


1 


18 


74 


45 


13 


8 


22 




46 


102 


105 


47 


30 


23 




17 


52 


54 


21 


13 


23 




31 


IM 


111 


75 


34 


24 




10 


32 


73 


28 


5 


24 




23 


80 


122 


93 


41 


25 




6 


28 


77 


30 


14 


25 




17 


61 


115 


93 


63 


26 




2 


22 


82 


49 


15 


26 




3 


70 


128 


101 


72 


27 




3 


17 


86 


63 


40 


27 




2 


38 


118 


113 


90 


28 






8 
9 


103 
83 


72 
86 


41 

58 


28 
29 




1 
1 


28 
22 


94 
95 


135 
110 


108 


•Ay 




1 


131 


30 






4 

2 
3 

1 
1 


75 

84 

58 

49 

43 

22 

15 

9 

7 

1 


G5 
91 
88 
85 
79 
67 
33 
25 
14 
6 


63 
73 
91 
94 
10 J 
89 
72 
51 
42 
29 


30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 

Total 

Median . . . 






16 
15 
12 
4 
5 
2 
2 


88 
61 
44 
40 
28 
14 
6 


138 
100 
104 
93 
66 
48 
23 


117 


31 










141 


32 










100 


33 










111 


34 










85 


35 






69 


36 












42 


37 














38 










S() 












1 






Total 


907 


l,i54 


1,188 


1,220 


989 


919 


480 


1,790 


1,692 


1,631 


1,514 


1,326 


Median ... 


6.8 


15.2 


It'. 2 


27.3 


30.9 


33.2 


7.6 


13.5 


19.6 


25.1 


28.4 


30.0 


Woody's 














Woody's 














Standard 














Standard 














Metlian. .. 


4.7 


n.i 


18.3 


26.1 


30.6 


32.9 


Median... 


5.8 


9.9 


16.5 


23.8 


27.4 


30.1 



Variation Within Grades. Are All Children of a Grade EqvMly 

Equipped? 

Were one to judge the ability of Wisconsin children in the 
lundamental operations by the best performers in each grade 
he would be forced to conclude that their work is excellent. On 
the other hand were he to judge by the work of those who made 
the poorest records he would class the work as very poor. The 



56 



The Vse of Some Standard Tests 



difference between the best and poorest in each grade for each 
of the four tests is very marked. Apparently some children are 
much too good for the grade and others, either as a result of poor 
teaching, poor grading, poor attendance, or otherwise, are far 
below average children for their grade. The best pupils often 
solved several times as many examples as the poorest. In no 
case did they fail to solve more than twice as many on any test. 
When we consider only the middle 50 per cent of the group, the 
range is still large as may be seen from Table 26. 

Table 26. — Range of Scores Made by Middle 50% of Pupils in Each Grade 





Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


■VIII 


Addition 


12.2- 
18.7 

10.7- 
16.0 

4.0- 
10.2 

4.7- 
10.2 


17.7- 
22.4 

15.0- 
20.5 

11.7- 
18.1 

10.7- 
17.1 


20.4- 
25.9 

18.7- 
22.9 

16. n- 
21.6 

15.4- 
2S.3 


24.5- 
31.9 

22.4- 

28.7 

23.1- 

30.8 

21.3- 

28.7 


28.7- 
34.6 

25.6- 
31.4 

28.0- 
33.7 

24.9- 
31.6 


30.2- 


Subtraction 


3b. 5 
27. &- 


Multiplication 


32.8 
30.3- 


Division 


35.6 

27.0- 




32.8 



When we consider that one-fourth of the pupils in each grade 
made scores still lower than the lower figures of Table 26, and 
that another fourth made scores above the higher figures in each 
case, the variation among children of the same grade in ability 
to perform the fundamental operations appears very striking. 
Yet the children in any given grade were classed by their teach- 
ers as belonging in that grade. Apparently the best judgment 
was not used in grading many of these children. Some of them 
are capable of doing more difficult work while others are at- 
tempting work that is now beyond them. The latter especially 
would profit from a careful study of individual needs by teach- 
ers. In such a study teachers should encourage pupils to find 
the peculiar processes which each has failed to master. 

That many children in each grade are no better equipped in 
ability to perform the fundamental operations than others in 
grades below, or that some in each grade are far in advance of 
others in grades above may be seen more clearly from the sec- 
tion on "Overlapping" following — "Overlapping" being the 
technical term for this condition. 



Arithmetic 



57 



The Overlapping of Performances from Grade to Grade 

' ' Overlapping ' ' is serious only when it is marked. Poor grad- 
ing of children on the basis of their ability to do the work of 
the grade is perhaps its most direct cause. This failure to grade 
according to abilities, or needs, is due to the failure of teachers 
to recognize differences among children and to certain adminis- 
trative difficulties, in part real and in part fancied. 

By reference to the Tables 24, and 25, showing the distribution 
of the scores made on each test it will be seen that there was a 
decided overlapping of scores for each test. Some third grade 
pupils did much better than the poorest eighth graders. The 
presence of overlapping may be seen more clearly from Table 
27, showing the scores attained by various proportions of each 
grade. 



Table 27. — The Scores Attained by Various Proportions of the Pupils in 

Each Grade 




*rh« term "lower 10 percentile" refers to the score which just 10 % of the group 
failed to reach and which 90^^ exceeded. The 'Mipper 10 percentile' refers to the 
score which 10% exceeded and which 90 ^o failed to reach. 

In the sixth grade the upper 10% not only surpassed the 
median of eighth grade children on each of the four tests bul 



58 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

they exceeded Woody 's standard for the eighth grade on all ex- 
cept subtraction. We are inclined to ask whether all children 
in the seventh and eighth grades should not be expected to do 
as well as the best 10% of the sixth. If the performances of 
these sixth grade children represent what can be accomplished 
with good teaching in the sixth grade then the seventh and 
eighth grades appear to have done little more than mark time. 
Undoubtedly, much of the teaching effort during the years that 
have preceded has been squandered. With improved teaching 
methods and better adaptation of the subject matter to individ- 
ual needs, at least 90% of the seventh and eighth grades ought 
to do as well as the best tenth of the sixth grade. In fact there 
should be little need for teaching the fundamentals of arithmetic 
in these grades, for if 10% of the sixth grade were able to reach 
their present standing, a much larger portion of that grade 
should be able to do so. with good teaching. Certainly there 
should be no excuse for such a poor showing as was made by the 
lower tenth of the eighth grade. Only in multiplication did 
they do as well as the best tenth of the fifth grade, and only in 
multiplication did they score above either the sixth grade me- 
dian, or above Woody 's sixth grade standard. 

The amount of overlapping in upper grades is on the whole 
greater than. in lower grades. This is accounted for in part by 
the fact that less emphasis is placed upon the teaching of the 
fundamental operations in the upper grades and in part by the 
fact that the examples on the tests were arranged in the form of 
a graded series. The graded series comes about through the ar- 
rangement of the examples in order of increasing difficulty. 
The proportionate increase in difficulty from one example to the 
next for the simpler examples in the forepart of the tests is 
greater than in the later and more difficult parts.^ 

An examination of the figures of Table 27, reveals the fact 
that with only two exceptions the upper 25% of each grade ex- 
ceeded the performances of the lower 25% of the next higher 
grade on each of the four tests. The two exceptions occur in the 
third and fifth grades on the test in multiplication. With few 
exceptions the best 10% of each grade did better than the me- 



^See Woody's Monograph: "Measure.ments of Some Achievements in 
Arithmetic," p. 17. - ' - 



Arithmetic 59 

dian of the next higher grade and better than the poorest tenth 
two grades above. The only exceptions to the former were 
in the third grade in multiplication and division, and the fifth 
grade in subtraction and multiplication. The exceptions to the 
latter were in multiplication for the third and fifth grades. 
Seemingly the best 25% of the children in each grade would 
be better equipped to do the arithmetic work of the next higher 
grade than 25% of the children now in these higher grades. It 
is highly probable that the upper 10% of each grade are better 
prepared than a large proportion of the next higher. 

Now it should be observed that we do not know whether the 
same individuals who are among the highest in one of the four 
fundamentals are also among the highest in the others. This is 
a matter which principals and teachers should investigate. The 
tests give indication that some of the pupils in each grade possess 
superior arithmetical ability. If it is found that certain pupils 
are superior in all of the fundamentals it would be well to find 
out what they can do on a test in reasoning problems. If they 
prove superior also in this phase of arithmetic, the probabilities 
are high that they are ready for promotion in arithmetic at least. 
Failure to maintain a high relative standing in reasoning abil- 
ity may indicate that for some pupils less time should be devoted 
to drill in the fundamentals and more to drill in reasoning. In 
the case of pupils who are strong in one or more of the funda- 
mental operations and not in the others specialized or individual 
drill may be highly profitable. Drill upon the particular oper- 
ations in which they reveal a weakness should be given. 

The Median Scores — How Well Do Wisconsin Children Perform 
in the Fundamental Operations? 

Table 28 is arranged to show median scores for all Wisconsin 
children tested and Woody 's standard. The medians when 
omitting the records of cities having only annual promotions 
tested late in the year, are also shown. In the latter one city 
is omitted for addition, two for subtraction and three each for 
multiplication and division. 



60 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



Table 28 Median Scores for all Gitiea and When Omitting Cities Having 

Annual Promotions Tested in April and May 





Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Addition 

Woody 's Standard Median 
Median for all cities a^ ... 
Median for cities b 


14.5 
15.5 
15.1 

11.2 
13.3 
13.6 

4.7 
6.8 
6.2 

5.8 
7.6 


18.3 
20.2 
20. 

15.7 
18.1 
17.9 

11.1 
15.2 
14.9 

9.9 
13.5 
12.4 


23.1 
22.7 
22.5 

20.4 
20,8 
20.6 

18.3 
19.2 
19. 

16.5 
19.6 
18. 


29.8 
28.4 
28.2 

25. 

25.6 

25.3 

26.1 
27.3 
27.2 

23.8 
25.1 

24.2 


32.4 
81.9 
31.8 

28.5 
28.4 
27,9. 

30.6 
30.9 
30.7 

27.4 
28.4 
27.7 


34. 

33.1 

33. 


Subtraction 

Woody's Standard Median. 

Median for all cities a 

Median for cities ib 

Multiplication 

Woody's Standard Median. 
Median for all cities a 


31.7 
30.3 
30.1 

32.9 
83.2 
32.9 


Division 

Woody's Standard Median. 

Median for all cities a 

Median for cities b 


30.1 

30. 

29.3 



' a includes all cities, b omits cities having only annual promotions, tested in April 
and May 

Wisconsin children perform well on the fundamental opera- 
tions in grades three, four and five. Their proficiency in the 
three remaining grades is not so evident, particularly when an- 
nual promotion schools tested in April and May are omitted. 
The best showing in the three upper grades is made in multipli- 
cation and the poorest in addition. 



Variation by Cities 

Table 29 gives the record in median scores for each city on 
each test given in that city. The median scores for all cities 
combined and Woody's standards are inserted for comparison. 
The records for the different cities are arranged approximately 
in order of the portion of the work for the grade completed 
at the time of the test. 



Arithmetic 



61 






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The Use of Some Standard Tests 



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Arithmetic 



63 



Table 30 gives the number of cities that equalled or exceeded 
Woody 's standard and the number below for each grade and 
test. 



Table 30. — The Number of Cities Equalling or Exceeding Woody' s 
Standard and Number Below 



Addition 

Number eauallingr or exceeding 

Woody's Standard 

Number below Woody's Standard 

Subtraction 

Number eaualling: or exceeding 

Woody's Standard 

Number below Woody's Standard 

multiplication 

Number eijualling or exceediDg 

Woody's Standard 

Number below Woody's Standard 

Division 

Number eauallingr or exceeding 

Woody'.s Standard 

Number below Woody's Standard 



III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


7 


11 


7 


3 


3 


6 


3 


7 


12 


12 


12 


14 


9 


10 


6 


3 


2 


5 


4 


6 


8 


12 


12 


12 


5 


2 


1 


1 


3 


7 


3 


13 


11 


10 


10 


2 


2 


3 


6 


7 



VIII 



The results in addition 

As indicated previously many Wisconsin schools appear to be 
weak in addition in the sixth, seventh and eighth grades. Only 
two cities make a good showing in all three of these grades. The 
larger of the two is a school having semiannual promotions 
tested very shortly after mid-year promotions. Addition ap- 
pears to be well taught in this city. The other of these cities 
has only annual promotions. The tests were given late in the 
year and pupils should be expected to exceed the standard set. 
In grades three, four and five one-half or more of the schools 
represented exceeded the standard set. Drill in addition does 
not appear to be neglected in these grades. Giving the tests in 
a city late in the year is not necessarily a guarantee that such 
a school will exceed the standard in addition. Some schools 
tested late in the year did little if any better than others tested 
early in the year. 

The results in suhtraction 

In subtraction again few cities are below Woody's standard 
in the third and fourth grades. Approximately two-thirds are 



64 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

above in grades five and six. Half are above in grade seven, and 
only three out of thirteen in grade eight. The grammar grades 
again appear to be the weakest links in the chain. 

The results in multiplication 

Wisconsin schools make their best showing in multiplication. 
In the fourth and fifth grades only one city is below standard. 
Two are below in the third and three in the sixth. In the sev- 
enth five are above the standard and seven below. In the eighth 
these figures are reversed. 

The results in division 

The lower grades in most cities made a good showing in divi- 
sion. For obvious reasons few gave the test in grade three. In 
grade four only two are below standard. In grade five eleven 
of the fourteen cities did better than the expected standard. 
In the fifth and sixth grades many more are above than below, 
but not so in the eighth grade. Here only five of the seventeen 
cities reached Woody 's standard. 

Why do Wisconsin Schools Apparently do Well in the Work in 

Fundamental Operations in the Lower Grades and Fail 

in the Upper? 

This is one of the most perplexing problems raised by the 
tests. Several factors may be involved. For one thing the 
teachers in the earlier grades clearly do not underemphasize 
drill. Then too Woody 's standards for these grades may be 
somewhat low. The same can scarcely be said of the standards 
in upper grades. In view of the types and number of examples 
on each test, the upper grade standards do not seem high. The 
addition test contains 38 examples, the subtraction 35, the multi- 
plication 39, and the division 36. This means that an eighth 
grade pupil might fail on four examples in addition and still do 
as w^ell as Woody 's standard. He might fail on three examples 
in subtraction, six in multiplication and five in division and yet 
be regarded as better than a median pupil. This is certainly 
a liberal allowance, particularly when we consider that the tests 
call for the application of no processes commonly introduced 
later than grade six. Only failures in denominate numbers 



Arithmetic 



65 



may be attributed somewhat to the courses of study. The Wis- 
consin Manual for rural schools, followed in part by some cities, 
discourages the teaching of these processes. What then accounts 
for the mediocre showing of the grammar grades? Simply a 
lack of sufficient facility in the manipulation of the necessary 
processes. Arithmetic is not wisely taught in these grades. Too 
little attention is given to the discovery of the specific needs of 
individual children upon which they need to be drilled. This 
may be seen better from a few typical illustrations. 

Table 31 from tlie Janesville Survey gives the average eighth 
grade scores for each of five buildings on each of ten examples 
of the division test. The writer's observation of results on these 
examples in other schools has convinced him that Janesville did 
neither worse nor better than the average. 



Table 21.— Ten 


Troublesome Examples 


in Grat 


le VIII 






Per cent of pupils wlio solved each of ten examples 
correctly— for the city and b.v buildings 


Example 


City 

71.9 
67.6 
77.7 
53.2 
33.8 
51.1 
33.8 
45.3 
28.1 
18. 
139 


Buildings 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


2 -i- 2 — 


64.5 
61.3 
74.2 
35.5 
35.5 
48.4 
38.7 
38.7 
25.8 
35.5 
31 


61.1 
66.7 
77.8 
55.6 

5.6 
27.8 
16.7 
61.1 
33.3 

5.6 
18 


89.7 
65.5 
79.3 
65.5 
34.4 
51.7 
34.5 
41.4 
27.6 
3.5 
29 


71.4 
75. 
82.1 
46.4 
42.9 
64.3 
32.1 
57.1 
32.1 
25. 
28 


69.7 






2.1)25.2 


69.7 






25)9750 


75.8 






.003). 0936 


72.7 


3i H- 9 — 


39.3 


i ^ 5 — 


54.5 


6/4 ^ ^'5— 


39.4 


52)3756 


36.3 






531)37722 


24.2 


9) 69 lbs 9 oz 


15. 


No.pupils taking test 


33 



Such extremely low scores are typical of many schools and can 
only be explained on the ground of insufficient teacliing. An 
analysis of 1500 errors made by 182 seventh and eighth grade 
pupils on the division test showed that even though the test of- 
fered many more opportunities for errors in simple subtraction, 
Inultiplication and division such matters as failures to invert, 



66 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

incorrect placing of the decimal, omisson of ciphers in the quo- 
tient, and failure to reduce answers to lowest terms were among 
the most frequent sources of error. 

■How can teachers improve the ability of pupils in funda- 
mental operations even though they may te doing as well as 
average children? 

This is a question to which teachers may be inclined to give 
little thought if their pupils are doing average work. Fre- 
quently, however, either still better results could be obtained, 
or results that are just as good, could be had in less 
time. In the latter event the best pupils could have more time 
for other subjects. Teachers should study the needs of indi- 
vidual children much more than they do. For example in one 
city a fifth grade of 41 children was 0.8 of an example above 
Woody 's standard on the test in subtraction, yet a study of the 
papers revealed the fact that one-half of the pupils had made 
errors in borrowing. Twenty-three pupils, while able to solve 
a number of examples in subtraction of fractions, failed to re- 
duce answers to lowest terms or did not reduce correctly. The 
statement of an answer as 2Vg=:i/4 was common. One pupil in 
this class solved all of the examples in subtraction of fractions 
and two of the three in subtraction of denominate numbers, 
but missed three in subtracting decimals of the equation form. 
This child apparently could profit more if permitted to take 
sixth grade work in arithmetic. Such class deficiencies as in- 
dicated above, or such unusual proficiency as that of this one 
pupil too often pass unnoticed when the class as a whole is doing 
as well as average children. Often it is not until we examine 
elosel}^ the work of each individual that we discover the particu- 
lar differences in the needs of the pupils of the same class. 

In a sixth grade of 33 pupils tested in subtraction, whose 
median score was more than three examples above Woody 's 
standard, 59 errors or almost two per pupil were in borrowing. 
These were contributed by 18 pupils. The errors were of two 
kinds, in one the pupil apparently disregarded the fact that he 
had previously borrowed, in the other he proceeded as though 
he had not borrowed when he really had. Eleven pupils made 
errors of the first sort and eleven made errors of the second 
sort, but strange as it may seem, seven of those making errors 
of the first kind made none of the second, and seven of those 



Arithmetic "' 

making the second type of error made none of the first sort. 
From this it would seem that drill in examples with borrowing 
is needed for this class but some of the pupils need to have their 
attention called to particular kinds of borrowing. One pupil, 
for example, made eight errors through disregarding the fact 
that he had borrowed, but none through subtracting as if he 
had borrowed when he had not, and another pupil made five 
errors of the latter sort but none of the former. 

In this same sixth grade 14 pupils gave 15% as the answer to 

27 
the example ^25/ Fifty errors were made because of failure 

to reduce, or incorrect reduction of the fractional part of the 
answer to lowest terms. These errors were contributed by 24 
pupils. Fifty-nine errors by 26 of this class occurred in subtrac- 
tion of decimals of the equation type, that were due to incorrect 
placing of the subtrahend. In numerous instances minuend 
and subtrahend were interchanged. The class was clearly weak 
in this type of exercise. Twenty-six errors were made in funda- 
mental combinations, and an equal number in placing of the 
decimal point. Errors of the former kind were limited to 16 
pupils and the latter to 17. 

The analysis of the errors made by these typical classes illus- 
trates a type of study which teachers should make frequently, 
but which they rarely do. Teachers would often be amazed at 
the peculiar mental processes of pupils, if they were to have 
them retrace audibly, each step of an incorrect solution. Were 
teachers to study the needs of their pupils in such manner as we 
have described, it would result in more intelligent drill exercises. 
A class which revealed weaknesses in subtraction or division 
would not be drilled blindly upon subtraction or division, but 
the major emphasis would be placed upon the particular sub- 
traction or division processes in which the class proved to be 
weak. Not only would there be a more careful selection of the 
type of exercise to be used for class drill, but a more intelligent 
direction of each individual pupil's energies. Such practice 
would either develop a greater degree of facility in manipulat- 
ing the fundamental operations than most children now possess, 
or equal facility would be acquired with a smaller time expendi- 
ture. 



68 The Use of Some Standard Tests ; 

Summary and Conclusions 

Children in Wisconsin city schools perform well in the funda- 
mental operations of arithmetic in grades three, four and five. 
The best showing for all grades is made in multiplication and 
the poorest in addition. Many schools are particularly weak 
in addition in grades six, seven and eight. The eighth grade in 
most schools is not only weak in addition but in subtraction 
and division as well. The high scores made in the three lower 
grades indicate that a greater amount of attention is being given 
to arithmetic in these grades than is necessary. This becomes 
more evident than ever when we consider that this unusual pro- 
ficiency is lost in the upper grades. 

The tests indicate wide differences in the arithmetical achieve- 
ment among pupils of the same grade. The overlapping of per- 
formances from grade to grade is so great as to indicate that 
many upper grade children are doing little else than marking 
time. These wide variations and marked overlappings are to 
be attributed mainly to differences in the quality of the teach- 
ing, differences in native endowment, to improper grading and 
to unequal attendance. Some pupils apparently are attempt- 
ing work that is beyond them and others are being permitted to 
proceed at a pace altogether too slow to tax their capacities. 
Teachers will need to make more careful and intensive studies 
of individual needs in order to discover how to help each pupil 
to improve and to advance at a rate commenstirate with his 
abilities and needs. 

Some Suggested Eeferences 
Discussions on the Use of Tests in AritJimetic 

Anderson, C. J. The Use of the Woody Scale for Diagnostic Purposes. 
Elem. School Jour., June 1918. 

Asbaugh, E. J. The Arithmetical Skill of Iowa School Children. 
Univ. of Iowa Extension Bulletin, No. 24. 

Boston, Dept. of Educational Investigation and Measurement, Arith- 
metic Bulletins 7 and 10. 

Bush, Maybell G. The Fundamental Number Facts. School an4 So- 
ciety, Sept. 1, 1917. 

Chase, Sara E. Waste in Arithmetic. Teachers College Record, Sept. 
1917. 

Cobb, Margaret V. A Preliminary Study of the Inheritance of Arith- 
metical Abilities. Jour, of Educational Psychology, Jan. 1917. 



Arithmetic 69 

Counts, G. S. Arithmetic Tests and Studies in the Psychology of 
Arithmetic. Univ. of Chicago Supplementary Educational Mono- 
graphs, Vol. 1, No. 4. 

Courtis, S. A. The Reliability of Single Measurements with Standard 
Tests. Elem. Sch. Jour., Mar. and June 1913. 

Gist, A. S. Errors in the Fundamentals of Arithmetic. School and 
Society, Aug. 11, 1917. 

Haggerty, M. E. Indiana University Studies in Arithmetic. Nos. 27 
and 32. 

Holloway, H. U. The Relative Difficulty of the Elementary Number 
Combinations. Univ. of Pa. Doctor's Dissertation, State Gazette 
Pub. Co., Printers, Trenton, N. J. 

Kirby, T. J. Practice in the Case of School Children. Bur. of Pub., 
Teachers College, N. Y. 

Monroe, W. S. A Report of the Use of the Courtis Standard Research 
Tests. Bur. of Educ. Measurements, State Normal School, Em- 
poria, Kan. 

Phelps, C. L. A Study of Errors in Tests of Adding Ability. Elem. 
Sch. Teacher, Sept. 1913. 

Smith, J. H. Individual Variations in Arithmetic. Elem. Sch. Jour., 
Nov. 1916. 

Stone, C. W. Standardized Rcusoninci tests in Arithm,etic and How to 
Utilize Them. Bur. of Pub., Teachers College, N. Y. 

Thorndike, E. L. Measurements of Ability to Solve Arithmetical Prob- 
lems. Ped. Sem., Dec. 1914. 

Uhl, W. L. The Use of Standardized Materials in Arithmetic for Diag- 
nosing Pupils' Methods of Work. Elem. Sch. Jour., Nov. 1917. 

Woody, C. Measurements of Some Achievements in Arithmetic. School 
and Society, Aug. 19, 1916. 

Woody, C. Measurements of Some Achievements in Arithmetic. Bur. 
of Pub., Teachers College, N. Y. 

See also various school survey reports: Butte, Cleveland, Denver, 
Grand Rapids, Janesville, Nassau Co. N. Y., Salt Lake, San Fran- 
cisco, St. Louis. 

Standard Tests in Arithmetic 
Fundiwiiental Operations 

Judd, C. H. Cleveland Survey Tests. Department of Education, Uni- 
versity of Chicago. 

Courtis, S. A. Courtis Standard Research Tests, Series B. 82 Eliot 
Street, Detroit, Mich. 

Kallom's Boston Tests in Addition of Fractions. Bulletin No. 7, De- 
partment of Educational Investigation & Measurement, Boston. 

Monroe's Diagnostic Tests. Bureau of Educ.Measurements, State Nor- 
mal School, Emporia, Kan. 

'Woody's Arithmetic Scales, Series A. Bureau of Publications, Teach- 
ers College, N. Y. 

Reasoning 

Buckingham's Reasoning Tests. These will be found in the Survey of 
the Gary & Prevocational Schools, New York City Board of Edu- 
cation, or in the Third Conference on Educ. Measurements, Univ. 
of Indiana. 

Starch's Arithmetical Scale A. Daniel Starch, Univ. of Wisconsin. 

Stone's Reasoning Test (Original Series). ) Bur. of Publications, 



(Equivalent " ).f Teachers College, N. Y. 



70 The Use of Some Standard fesis 



Methods of Teaching Arithmetic 

Brown & CofEman. How to Teach Arithmetic. Row, Peterson & Co. 

Charters, W. W. Teaching the Common Branches. Houghton Mifflin 
Co. 

Freeman, F. N. The Psychology of the Common Branches. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. 

Jessup & Coffman. The Supervision of Arithmetic. Macmillan Co. 

Jessup, W. A. Economy of Time in Arithmetic. . 14th Yearbook, Na- 
tional Society for Study of Education. 

Klapper, F. The Teaching of Arithmetic. D. Appleton & Co. 

Kendall & Mirick. How to Teach the Fundamental Su'bjects. Hough- 
ton Mifflin Co. 

McDougle, E. C. A Contribution to the Pedagogy of Arithmetic. Fed. 
Sem., June 1914. 

Smith, D. E. Arithmetic in Rapeer's book. Teaching Elementary 
School Su'bjects. Seribner's. 

Smith, D. E. The Teaching of Arithmetic. Ginn & Co. 

Suzzallo, H. The Teaching of Primary Arithmetic. Houghton Mifflin 
Co. 



CHAPTER III 



WRITING 

Handwriting, though one of the original "three R's, " is per- 
haps more often poorly tanght than any other subject. It is a 
subject which, under haphazard methods of teaching, yields per- 
haps less on the time and money invested in teacher service than 
any other subject, and one which brings a large return with good 
teaching. The fact that writing is often poorly taught is due 
not alone to a lack of knowledge of the technique of teaching 
others to write well but to an entire absence of standards. It is 
exceptional to find a teacher who has any definite conception of 
how well children of a given grade should write with a given 
amount of training. With the development of the Thorndike, 
Ayres and others handwriting scales it has become possible to 
measure handwriting objectively. It is now possible to say that 
a given specimen of handwriting is as good as quality 12 on the 
Thorndike scale or quality 60 on the Ayres scale and that it was 
produced at a rate of a certain number of letters per minute. 
Through the application of these scales it is possible to say that 
a given quality of handwriting represents average performance 
for a given grade or that it is better or worse than the average. 
It is also possible to measure the amount of improvement over 
a given period of time, or the variation within grades, as well 
as to compare achievement this year with achievement last year. 

In order that such data as these might be available for Wis- 
consin and in order to acquaint a larger number of teachers with 
methods of testing handwriting, instructions for giving a test 
and for scoring the papers were prepared. They were sent to 
each county superintendent, to principals of the County Train- 
ing Schools and to each of the Normal schools. County super- 
intendents were asked to give the test in five rural schools. Each 
training school was asked to test an equal number. Each nor- 



72 The Use of Sojne Standard Tests 

mal school was asked to test three state graded schools. In ad- 
dition the test was given in a number of cities under the personal 
direction of the writer. 

The following letter of directions was sent to county super- 
intendents in January 1917, 



Office of State Superintendent 

To County Superintendents: 

We shall be very glad to receive your cooperation and assistance 
in establishing standards in handwriting for Wisconsin. The direc- 
tions for testing the handwriting are as follows: 

1. Schools to be tested — Select the last five rural schools taking alpha- 

betically the surnames of the teachers. 

2. Date of testing — Any time previous to March 1st. 

3. Who shall conduct the test? — Preferably the superintendent or 

the supervisor, but it may be given by the teacher if you are 
certain that she imderstands the directions perfectly. 

4. Directions to be followed by the tester — 

a. Materials — Provide each pupil with unruled paper of uniform 

size. Use ink wherever possible. 

b. Data to be secured from pupils — Have each pupil place upon 

the 'back of the sheet his name, age, grade, date, whether 
boy or girl, county, school and teacher's name. 

c. Time to be allowed — Allow the children to write for exactly 

two minutes. The tester must have a watch with second 
hand. 

d. What the children are to write — In grades 4 to 8 the series 

of words "one, two, three, four, five, six, seven," etc., as 
far as they can go in the time allowed taking time to 
write well. In grades 2 and 3 have them write only the 
words "one, two, three, four" and repeat as often as time 
permits writing well. Caution — Be sure that children 
know how to spell the words to be written. Instruct them 
to omit all commas. 

e. Returning papers to the county superintendent's office — All 

papers are to be tied in a package, labelled with county, 
school, and teacher's name and forwarded to the county 
superintendent. 
Each county superintendent will be sent a copy of instructions for 
scoring the papers and the necessary tabulation sheets. 

Sincerely, 
Supervisor of Educational Measurements. 

Each county training school was asked to select the five rural 
schools most easily accessible, and each normal school to test the 
three state graded schools most easily accessible. The series of 
Avords indicated in the letter to county superintendents was used 
as a subject in all except in those tested by principals of train- 



Writing 73 

ing schools, where for certain reasons the sentence "one boy 
ate three apples" was substituted. A copy of directions for 
scoring the papers may be seen below. 



Directions for Scoring Handwriting 

1. Scoring papers for quality of handwriting. 

a. Who shall score the papers? — Each paper is to be marked by- 

three judges, preferably the county superintendent, the 
supervisor, and one other competent person. Each judge 
is to work independently. 

b. Scale to be used — Thorndike (This may be secured from the 

Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, New York, 5c). 

c. Judging the childrens handwriting — Compare each child's 

writing with samples on the scale without previous knowl- 
edge as to the mark assigned by any other iudee. Placp 
upon the hack of each paper the number of the sample on 
the scale to which the child's writing most nearly corre- 
sponds in merit. 

d. Computing the final mark on each paper — Take as the final 

mark the middle score, e. g. if a paper has marks of 9, 10, 
11, its final mark is 10. If it has marks of 7, 8, 11, its 
final mark is 8. If two marks are alike that score is the 
final mark, e. g. if the marks are 9, 9, 11 assign it a final 
mark of 9. 

2. Scoring the papers for speed of handwriting. 

Determine the total number of letters written by each child in 
two minutes. You will find it to your advantage to prepare 
a score card which will indicate at a glance the total letters 
written if the last word written is "sixteen", "seventeen", 
etc., e. g. the words from one to fifteen inclusive totnl 74 let- 
ters. Correct for letters omitted or added. Count dashes or 
commas if present as letters. 

3. Reporting scores to the office of the state superintendent. 

Prepare one of the enclosed tabulation sheets for each school 
tested and forward to the office of the State Superintendent. 
The office will be glad to receive returns also from any 
schools scored with the Ayres Scale (Published by the Divi- 
sion of Education. Russell Sage Foundation, New York). If 
time permits it will be interesting and profitable to score by 
both scales. 

In training and normal schools papers were scored hy stu- 
dents and faculty members, under the direction of members of 
the respective fnoulties. In some cities the tests were scored by 
teachers and in others by students of the teachers training course, 
after some preliminary practice in scoring. 



74 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

The Returns 

Eeports were received from twenty-four county superintend- 
ents, eleven county training schools, and three normal schools. 
Data were collected by the writer in eleven cities. The returns 
from county superintendents and training school principals 
represent 173 rural schools and 30 different counties. Two 
county superintendents made returns for more than five schools 
and three for less. In some cases the instructions to select the 
last five schools, taking alphabetically the surnames of the teach- 
ers, were not carried out because of difficulties entailed in reach- 
ing these schools. This has prevented in part what was intended 
to be a random selection but it is probable that it has not ma- 
terially effected the results. 

The results reported by county superintendents for speed of 
handwriting in a few cases were so high as to arouse suspicion 
as to the accuracy with which the time was kept. Accordingly 
a follow-up letter was addressed to each county superintendent 
reporting, asking in detail as to the conditions observed. In 
every case where the test was not given by either the county 
superintendent, or by the supervising teacher, and wherever it . 
could not be stated that the two minute time limit had been ex- 
plicitly observed, the results were rejected for speed. As a re- 
sult of these eliminations the returns for only 141 rural schools 
representing 28 counties were used in computing the speed of 
liandwriting for rural schools. Speed was recorded in only five 
of the eleven cities tested. 

The Eesults — ^What quality of writing do Wisconsin chil- 
dren PRODUCE .^ 

The distribution of scores. Table 82 gives the distribution of 
all pupils' scores in terms of the Thorndike scale for quality of 
handwriting. The median scores and Freeman's standard are 
fdso shown, 



Writing 



75 



Table 32. — Distribution of Scores for Quality of Handwriting — Thorndike 

Scale 



Qualitj' 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


4 


18 
46 


7 
27 












5 


7 


1 


2 


1 




6 


76 


64 


39 


12 


10 


6 


5 


7 


194 


233 


168 


99 


43 


19 


15 


8 


197 


350 


334 


238 


174 


100 


90 


9 


121 


300 


371 


362 


364 


260 


224 


10 


29 


60 


126 


134 


137 


138 


121 


11 


26 


67 


129 


125 


196 


226 


223 


12 


2 


24 


45 


62 


83 


114 


140 


13 


1 


12 


15 


30 


60 


69 


82 


14 




3 


1 


8 


14 


23 


29 


15 






2 


5 

1 


7 
8 

1 


16 

7 
2 
1 


17 


16 






24 


17 






6 


18 










3 
















Total 


710 


1,147 


1,237 

8.7 


1,077 
9.0 


1, 099 
9.4 


982 
10.3 


979 


Median 


7.6 


8.2 


10.7 


'Freeman's 
















Standard . 


8.2 


8.8 


9.6 


10.1 


11.0 


11.7 


12.1 



'■ Converted from Ayres to Thorndike units by Kelly's method of equat- 
ing the .two scales. "Each Thorndike unit equals 7.9 as great a dis- 
tance as an Ayres unit." 



The scores range from those rated as of quality 4 scarcely legi- 
ble as handwriting, to those rated as of a quality 18. Only 25 
however were rated below quality 5 and only thirteen as better 
than 16. Some appreciation of the merit possessed by specimens 
rated at each of steps 4 to 16 of the Thorndike scale may be 
jiained by reference to Figure IV. 

The specimens are arranged in order of merit as judged by 
the scores. With the exception of the two specimens rated as 
14 and 16, which are taken from the Thorndike scale, the speci- 
mens represent writing produced by children for the Janesville 
survey. 

In grade two the quality of handwriting produced by Wis- 
consin children ranges from 4 to 13, and in grade eight from 6 
to 18. While progress is evident from grade to grade there is 
a marked overlapping of achievements in writing. Considerable 



76 The Use of Some Standard Tests 



ifl&ted 
at 




^^.{ndj^ /t>^^ir ^tk'^M, ^jf^^^ 

12 ^yViu-tr- cy^^^LtxJ^_Q^ -^po-i/c/t^ --^^^..^i/^^ cy^L-^f-^pc^ 

Fig. IV. Specimens of Each Quality o f Handwriting. ^ 



1 Reproduced from "An Educational Survey of Janesville, Wisconsin." 



Writmg 



11 



numbers of children in grades two and three excel many children 
in every grade above, including the eighth. The best writers in 
the second and third grades exceed the poorer half of the eighth 
grade. The poorest writers in the eighth grade do not write as 
well as average second graders. Some children are naturally 
good writers early in life. Others will make good writers only 
with unusually careful teaching. Children in the second grade 
whose writing already possseses the merit of quality 11 on the 
Thorndike scale will need to devote but little attention to im- 
proving their Avriting during the elementary school period. For 
these children it will be more profitable to spend much of the 
time ordinarily devoted to writing practice to other subjects. 

Table 33. — 77u; Median Scores, the Lower and Upper 25 Percentiles and the 
Range of the Middle 50% in Quality of Handioriting 





11 


111 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Lower 25 percentile 

Median 


6.7 
7.6 

8.5 
1.8 


7.3 
8.2 
9.1 
1.8 


7.8 
8.7 
9.6 
1.8 


8.2 

9.0 

10.2 

2.0 


8.6 

9.4 

11.0 

2.4 


9.0 
10.3 
11.4 

2.4 


9.1 
10.7 


Upper 25 percentile 

Range of middle 50% 


11.9 

2.8 



While the median indicates the score that just half of the 
pupils were able to attain, it is desirable to know how well other 
portions of the children did and how widely these portions dif- 
fer. Table 33, computed from Table 32, gives the median score, 
the lower and upper 25 percentiles and the range of the middle 
50%. These figures are represented graphically in Figure V. 
The writing of the poorest fourth of the pupils did not exceed 
the figures representing the lower 25 percentile. That of the 
best fourth was better than the figures indicated by the upper 
25 percentile. Subtracting the figures representing the upper 
and lower 25 percentiles we have the range of the middle half of 
the pupils. It will be seen that this is never much less than two 
steps. In the eighth grade it becomes almost three steps. That 
the writing attainments of half of the children should vary so 
much is surprising, but it becomes much more so when we con- 
sider that one-fourth of them were unable to write as well as the 
lower figure in Table 33 and another fourth wrote better than 



78 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



the higher figure. The poorer writers have accomplished little for 
the time spent in writing. Every teacher should attempt to dis- 
cover the reason for this. She should help each child to discover 
his particular shortcomings and how they might be remedied. 



1. " II 


I 


V V 


V 


VII VTtl 


11 

10 
9 












—"" 








„.,-'-" 




. 







— -^" 


- 


^^ 




8 




^^^ 





_„»- — • — ■"" 


^ ,,«- — '— ^ 




'^^^^, 


, ''-'' 


■^ 










-"" 












«i 




































Upper 35 P« 
Uedlan 


rcentlle 

















Lower 35 P( 


rcectlle 























1 











Flg.V. 



The Median Scores and the Lower and Upper 35 Percentiles 
In Quality of Handwriting 



The median performances 

The median^ or middle performance for each grade for 7,231 
Wisconsin children in rural, graded and city schools, and for 
children in each separate class of schools may be seen in Table 34, 
For purposes of comparison the median scores for 28,000 Iowa 
children and for children in the better half of 56 cities tested 
by Dr. Freeman are also given. ^ 



^ The median score means that just half of the children in any given 
grade wrote better than this and half did not write as vsrell. 

- The Iowa and Freeman scores have been converted from terms of 
the Ayres scale to the Thorndike scale by Kelly's method. 



Writing 



79 



Table 34. — 1' he Median Scores in Quality of Handwriting for Each Class 
of Schools — Thorndike Scale 



11 Cities 

9 Graded schools 

30 Counties (173 Kural 

schools) 

Wisconsin median 

*Iovv a standard 

*Freeman"s standard.. 



II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


7.5 


8.0 


8.6 


9.0 


9.3 


10.5 


10.7 


7.5 


7.8 


8.2 


9.0 


9.5 


9.3 


10.0 


7.7 


8.5 


8.6 


9.1 


9.5 


10.3 


10.7 


7.tj 


8.2 


8.7 


9.0 


9.4 


10.. i 


10.7 


8.3 


8.8 


9.4 


10.0 


10.4 


11.0 


11.5 


8.2 


8.8 


•d.^ 


10.1 


11.0 


11.7 


12.1 



Number 

children 

tested 



3,866 
720 

2,645 

7,231 

28,000 

56 cities 



* Converted from Ayres to Thorndilie units by Kelly's method of 
equating- the two scales. "Each Thorndike unit equals 7.9 as great a dis- 
tance as an Ayres' unit." 

The writing of Wisconsin children on the whole shows distinct 
progress from grade to grade. This is true for each class of 
school though in certain cases the improvement is slight. There 
is little difference in the median quality of the handwriting pro- 
duced in each class of school. Variations of from 0.1 to 0.3 are 
not more than might reasonably be expected where the scoring 
Avas done by judges with a limited amount of training. The 
graded schools alone depart rather sharply in some grades from 
the median for all schools. The returns from this class of schools 
are scarcely large enough in number however to be representa- 
tive of all state graded schools. 

When comi3ared with Iowa children, Wisconsin children do 
not make a favorable showing, Iowa children lead by a margin 
varying from 0.6 of a sfep to an eiitire step. This margin of 
superiority for Iowa children, instead of decreasing, mounts 
liigher as we proceed from the lower to the upper grades. This 
is difficult to explain unless it be that the time given to the teach- 
ing of handwriting in Wisconsin has not been used to the best 
advantage. Successful results in handwriting require not only 
1hat time be spent in writing, but that the art of writing be well 
taught. Fifty minutes per Aveek which represents the average 
amount of time given to handwriting in American cities^ 
should be sufficient time in which to accomplish satisfactory re- 
sults. How Wisconsin writing compares with that of Iowa and 
with Freeman's standard may be seen from Figure VI. 



1 See Holmes' study in the "14th Year Book of the National Society for 
the Study of Education." 



8^ 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



How well may Wisconsin children he expected to write? 

Good schools should not tolerate mediocre performances in any- 
subject. If the scores given above represent how well Iowa and 
Wisconsin children can write without any serious attempt to 
bring about good writing, what may we expect when it is well 



13 

12 


II III IV V V] 


Til Till 














11 
10 










^.-' 












^-""^ 


^--^^ 


9 






- "Z^-^'"^ 




^^ 




8 
7 


:r.—^ 












^^ 












6 
5 

4 






























Freeman's S' 
Iowa Standa: 


andard— 56 C 
d — 38,000 


itles 
Children 










Wisconsin 
























































Fig,TI, 



The Quality of Handwriting in Wisconsin Conpared with the 
Freeman and Iowa Standards 



taught? The scores represented by Freeman's standard in 
Table 3-4 give us at least a tentative goal to be attained. Is there 
any valid reason why "Wisconsin children may not be expected 
to reach this standard?. With a concerted attempt to improve 
the quality of handwriting it should be possible to do so in the 
near future. Quality 12, Figure VII, which represents approxi- 
mately median eighth grade performance by the Freeman stand- 
ard is not too much to expect of children who are about to leave 
the elementary school and who will receive little if any system- 
atic training in handwriting thereafter. 

Freeman's standard was derived by computing the median 
scores made by the better half of fifty-six cities- tested. It rep- 



Writinjg 



81 



resents at least an entire school tested in each oi" these cities. 
The specimens for the fifty-six cities were scored by a single in- 
dividual and are therefore to be considered as possessing a sat- 
isfactory degree of validity. 

I J JCc<jL^iAAl -^yvviX HhetVi^-y-uii OcOt^*^(-£l^o ayyu>i/-^^U^-tcC iKaJ- 0(J 

Fig. VII Quality 13 on the Thorndlke Scale Repreaentlng 
Approximately Freeman's Elghtb Grade Standard 

Variatioit by schools. Are all schools equally successful? 

The median scores by counties representing the attainments 
in rural schools are given in Table 35. 



Table 35. — Median Scores in Quality of Handwriting — By Counties 



Counties 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


No. 

children 

tested 


1 


8.3 
7.5 
8.0 

e.8 

7.5 
8.3 
6.5 
S.8 
7.1 
7.6 
8.3 
7.7 
8.3 
6.9 
8.0 
8.3 
6.8 
8.5 
8.0 
7.8 
S.9 
7.3 
7.5 
8.0 
7.1 

e.o 

8.2 
8.1 
8.0 
8.1 


8.4 
9.0 
8.4 
7.9 
8.3 
9.3 
7.4 

9.;; 

8.5 
7.9 
9.2 
9.0 

11.0 
7.0 
8.3 
7.5 
7.8 
9.3 
7.8 
7.9 

10.1 
9.4 
8.4 
8.5 
9.5 
8.6 
8.5 
8.8 
8.6 
7.9 


8.3 

8.4 

9.1 

7.9 

8.2 

8.6 

7.1 

9.4 

8.6 

8.0 
11.5 

!).4 

9.8 

7.4 

7.8 

8.1 

9.0 
11.3 

"s.9" 
9.2 
8.0 
8.7 
8.4 
10.7 
8.8 
S.4 

a.i 
9.2 
8.3 


9.4 
10.0 
9.2 
8.6 
8.9 
8.6 
7.6 
9.8 
8.5 
8.6 
9.7 
9.1 
11.2 
9.8 
8.6 
9.3 
8.3 
12.8 
9.1 
8.8 
10.8 
10.5 
8.3 
9.3 
12.3 
9.0 
9.0 
8.9 
10.5 
10.0 


10.3 
9.5 
9.3 
8.6 
9.5 
9.1 
9.0 

10.8 

10.0 
9.1 
9.0 
9.3 

13.7 

10.8 
8.9 
9.0 
8.0 

13.0 
9.3 
9.1 

11.5 

11.2 
9.0 
9.0 

13.5 
9.3 

10.0 
9.0 
9.3 

10.7 


9.3 

9.5 

""9!8 

10.5 

10.8 

9.0 

11.0 

9.5 

9.1 

9.3 

10.1 

14.7 

10.7 

10.8 

10.0 

10.0 

13.8 

9.0 

11.0 

11.9 

9.4 

9.3 

9.5 

12.0 

8.9 

8.5 

10.0 

11.4 

10.8 


10.7 
10.3 

8.5 
12.0 

9.8 

9.7 
11.0 
13.8 

9.3 

9.6 
11.0 
11.3 
14.6 
10.5 

9.1 
10.5 
10.8 
12.3 
11.1 

9.0 
11.0 
10.8 
10.5 

"i'i.k" 

10.5 
10.7 
10.8 
10.8 
10.3 


71 




74 


3 


79 


i 


150 




56 


6 


109 


7 


121 


8 


99 


9 


83 


10 


214 


11 


65 


12 


72 


l,j 


167 


11 


68 


15 


70 


10 


43 


17 


66 


18 


85 


19 


47 


20 


82 


21 


97 


9') 


77 


23 


151 


•■>i 


87 




57 


2G 


46 




74 


•1J 


71 


•59 


82 


30 


82 






Median for 173 
rural schools... 


7.7 


S.5 


s\6 


9.1 


9.5 


10.3 


10.7 


2,645 



Considerable variation is to be noted. Some counties appar- 
ently secure much better results than others. The validity of 
the results is effected somewhat however by the small number of 



82 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



children tested and also by the limited amount of training pos- 
sessed by the scorers. Table 36 gives the median scores for each 
of eleven cities arranged in approximate order of the portion of 
the work of the grade completed. The Iowa and Freeman stand- 
ards are again inserted for purposes of comparison. 

Table 36. — Median Scores in Quality of Handwriting for Eleven Wisconsin 
Cities— Thorndike Scale 





















No. 


Cities 


Date Tested 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


children 
tested 


\ 


9_28— 16 
10_ 9_]6 








9.4 

9.2 


9.3 
9.5 






52 


2 




7.6 


8.9 


10.9 


10.8 


414 


3 


10— 23— 16 




8.6 


9.3 


9.2 


9.4 


11.3 


8.8 


405 


4 


12— 5—16 




8.2 


8.6 


7.9 


8.8 


9.2 


9.8 


313 


5 


12— 8—16 




8.8 


9.0 


8.9 


10.3 


10.0 


9.7 


434 





3_29— 17 


7.3 


7.8 


8.9 


9,1 


9.5 


10.2 


11.0 


1,061 


7 


5_10— 17 




7.8 


8.4 


9.4 


8.7 


9.4 


11.1 


288 


8 


3- 6-17 




7.8 


8.4 


8.9 


9.3 


10.9 


11.0 


456 


9 


3- 8-17 


8.3 


8 6 


9.3 


9.3 


lO.'S 


10.7 


13.1 


138' 


10 


4_10-]7 


8.0 


7.7 


8.1 


8.7 


9.1 


11.2 


9.4 


223 


11 


4-12-17 


6 


8.3 


8.8 


8.0 


8.9 


9.0 


12.0 


82 


Combined City Mediaii 


7.5 


8.0 


8.6 


9.0 


9.3 


10.5 


10.7 


3,866 


Butte June 


8 2 


8.0 


8.8 


8.9 


11.6 


11 2 


12.1 




Des Moin 
Palt Lake 
Starch's > 






7.3 
9.3 

8.2 


8.1 
10.7 

8.7 


8.4 
10.9 
9.3 


8.9 
11.2 

9.8 


9.5 
12.1 
10.4 


10.0 
13.1 
10.9 




June 






tandard — 


7.5 




Freeman's standard i 


8.2 


8.8 


9.6 


10.1 


11.0 


11.7 


.12.1 






8.3 


S.8 


9.4 


10.0 


10,4 


11.0 


11.5 









^Converted from A.vres to Thorndike UDits by KelLv's method of eauatin? the two 
scales. "Each Thorndike unit eauals 7.9 as great a distance as an Ayres unit." 

The highest scores for each grade are indicated in bold face 
type. It is evident that were all schools to achieve the results ob- 
tained by the city making the highest score in each grade, Wis- 
consin schools would compare favorably with schools elsewhere. 
They would then equal the median Iowa handwriting in two 
grades, exceed it in three, and fall below in two. They would 
equal the Freeman standard in two grades, exceed it in one and 
fall below in four. Certainly the scores made by these schools 
would be none too high to expect where writing is well taught. 
It is to be noted that four of the highest scores for the different 
grades were made in one city. This is a comparatively small city 
using a certain popular method of handwriting. The specimens 
were scored by members of the teacher training class of the high 
school under the personal supervision of the writer. They were 
scored after a period spent in practice judging upon samples of 



Writing 



83 



Imown value. It is difficult to account for the very low scores 
made by children in some cities in certain grades. A few cities 
do not make a satisfactory showing in any grade. The scores 
point to but one conclusion — ivriting is not well taught. Re- 
sults are not commensurate with the time given to the subject. 

The Results in Speed — How Rapidly do Wisconsin Children 

Write? 

The median scores in speed 

Table 37 gives the median scores in speed of handwriting for 
each class of school and for all schools combined. These may be 
compared with the median achievements for Iowa children and 
for the children in the better half of 56 cities selected by Free- 
man. The median scores in speed in all schools combined and 
for the Iowa and Freeman standards are represented graphically 
in Figure VIII. 

Tablk 37. — The Median Scores in Speed of Handwriting for Each Clats 

of Schools 



















Number 




II 


Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


children 
tested 


5 cities 


29.9 


43. 


54.6 


62. 


61.9 


75.8 


78.9 


1,985 


9 fe'raded scliools 


36.7 


48.1 


61.5 


71. 


82.5 


84.3 


96.3 


720 


28 counties (141 rural 


















sciiools) 


36.9 


56.1 


59.3 


69.4 


73. 


78.8 


88. 


2,079 


Wisconsin Median 


34.2 


49.6 


57.2 


66.4 


68.2 


77.9 


84.7 


4,784 


Iowa Standard 


3!j.2 


49.6 


61.9 


65.5 


72.6 


75. 


76.5 


28,000 


Freeman's Standard. 


36. 


48. 


56. 


65. 


72. 


80. 


90. 


56 cities 



Table 37 shows that in the matter of speed state graded schools 
lead over rural and city schools. This lead is quite marked in 
grades pix, seven and eight. Referring to Table 34 showing the 
quality of handwriting it appears however that speed has been 
gained at a sacrifice of quality. It is only in grades five and 
six that the graded schools excel the record for all Wisconsin 
children in speed, and yet maintain a quality as good as they. 
The high rate of speed attained in graded schools is much above 
either the Iowa or Freeman standards in grades five, six, seven, 
and eight, but the quality is much below either of these stand- 



84 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



ards in each of these grades. Rapid writing is desirable but it 
must be accompanied by a satisfactory quality of the product. 



J Tl 


I TV \1 


V^ 


jyi viii. 
























^,,^ 










^.^^ 


-^ 


^""^^^^^^^'^ 








-^^?^^ 


_^_t- -''' 


^ 






^ ^ 


^ 




















^ 






Freeman's Standard - 56 


Cltlea 






■ 


Iowa Standa 
Wisconsin 


rd - 38,000 Children 





























fig.VIII The Median Speed of Handwriting for All Echcole Comrared with 
the Iowa and Freeman 'a Standards 

In justice to these schools it may be said that the series of words 
used may have tended to cause an undue effort to be placed upon 
speed. The series was not different however from that used 
in cities and in most rural schools. Furthermore when the me- 
dian speed for the two groups of rural schools, each using a dif- 
ferent series of words, are compared it is seen that only in some 
grades did those using the series, "one two three four," etc. 
write at a higher rate of speed than did those using the series, 
"one boy ate three apples." This may be seen from Table 38. 

Table 38. — The Median Scores in Speed in Rural Schools Writing the Words, 
"One, two, three, four," etc., and in Those Writing "One boy ate three 
apples " 





II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


"One, two, three, four," etc — 
"One boy ate three apples " 


35 
41 


56.5 
55.4 


.55.9 
64.2 


71.1 
65. 


73.3 
72.6 


78.8 
78.8 


90.4 
81.8 



Referring again to Table 37 it will be seen that city children, 
as far as the cities which reported scores in speed are representa- 



Writing 



85 



tive of all cities, do not write as rapidly as children in rural and 
graded schools, nor as rapidly as Freeman's standard. They 
exceed the Iowa standard in grades seven and eight. 

Eural schools on the whole make the best showing of Wiscon- 
sin schools in writing. Their quality is not inferior to that of 
other classes of schools and their speed is more nearly in accord 
with desirable standards in most grades. 

"When the combined results for all schools in speed of hand- 
writing are compared with Iowa scores and with Freeman's 
standard, (Figure VIII), Wisconsin children are not as a whole 
s^lower writers. They probably write as rapidly as average chil- 
dren who have not been taught to write with any particular 
attention being given to their rate of writing. It is in point of 
quality that Wisconsin children fail to do well. They should 
be expected either to produce a higher quality at their present 
rate of writing or to produce their present quality at a higher 
speed. It is when both speed and quality are considered to- 
gether that Wisconsin children do not appear to have attained 
a high grade of efficiency in handwriting. 



Variation in speed of writing within grades 

Whether children of a grade write about equally rapid may 
be judged from a distribution table for all of the scores. The 
distribution of scores in speed of handwriting for 4.784 children 
representing 141 rural, 9 graded and 5 city schools is shown in 
Table 39. How much children of a given grade vary in the rate 

Table 39. — Distribution of Scores For F^peed of Handwriting 



Speed 


TI 


IIT 


TV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


0- 20 . . 


8-2 

293 

110 

45 

or; 

13 

5 


28 
207 
150 

157 
09 
59 
30 
12 

1 

2 

i 


■■>.?, 
13^ 
ll.l 
174 

157 

99 

53 

18 

13 

2 

2 

1 


17 

61 

81 

114 

107 

12fi 

83 

55 

26 

5 

4 

3 


8 

.50 

63 

119 

130 

118 

89 

54 

33 

18 

4 

3 


4 

27 

.36 

60 

105 

122 

123 

80 

48 

27 

15 

7 




91-40 


18 


41- 50 


14 


51- 60 


50 


61- 70 


74 


71-80 


100 


gl- 90 


108 


91-100 


122 


101-110 


66 


Ill 120 




37 


121 130 




14 


131-140 




6 






4 








1 


1 


2 


1 


161-170 






1 




Total 

Median 


580 
34.2 


757 
49.6 


790 
57.2 


683 
66.4 


692 
68.2 


656 
77.9 


626 
84.7 



86 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

of writing may be judged from the range of the scores in each 
grade. In grade two the rate varies from that of 82 pupils who 
wrote less than 21 letters per minute to that of 5 pupils who pro- 
duced more than 90 letters per minute. In other grades the 
range is even greater. It is evident that some children in each 
grade write with a speed several times that of others in the same 
grade. The marked overlapping (i. e. children of a lower grade 
exceeding the speed of others in grades above) appears to indi- 
cate that some children begin as slow writers and continue to be 
slow writers throughout. Others are rapid writers early in their 
school life and continue to be rapid writers. This supposition 
if correct contains an important implication for teachers. If 
the habit of writing rapidly is to be developed, teachers must 
consciously train pupils in that direction. Left to proceed with- 
out guidance, there is little assurance that a pupil will develop 
even a fair rate of writing. The presence of pupils in grades 
six, seven, and eight. Table 39, who do not write more than 60 
letters per minute is to be regretted. Unless strenuous efforts 
are made in the near future these children will leave the elemen- 
tary schools with writing habits too slow for efficiency in the 
business and commercial world, or any other occupation requir- 
ing the use of writing. 

The Eelation op Speed and Quality 

To discover opportunities for improvement, the variations in 
both speed and quality need to be considered. Do all the chil- 
dren of a grade write about equally well or equally rapid ? Do 
some schools produce good but slow writers ? Do others produce 
poor but rapid writers? Are there others in which children 
write both well and rapid or both poor and slow! The varia- 
tions in quality were noted in Table 32. Those for speed were 
shown in Table 39. Unfortunately in most cases it did not ap- 
pear feasible to request that results be recorded in a form that 
would indicate the scores in both quality and speed for the same 
pupils. Some appreciation of the relation which may be ex- 
pected can be judged from the results in one grade in Janesville 
shown in Table 40. 



Writing 



87 



Table 40. — Distribution of Handwriting Scores in Speed and Quality 

for Grade Seven 





Speed 




Quality 


0-40 


41- 

50 


51- 
60 


Gi- 
ro 


71- 

80 


81- 
00 


91- 

100 


101- 
110 


Ill- 
no 


121- 

130 


Total 


5 


1 


















1 


6 






















7 






1 
1 
6 
1 
5 
1 
3 


1 

3 

6 

5 

10 














2 


8 


i 


i ' 

3 

1 
...... 


1 
8 

10 
8 
3 
3 
1 


"n" 

2 
9 
3 


i 

5 
2 
5 

1 


"i" 

2 
3 


1 

2 




9 


9 


44 


10 




23 


11 


2 




2 


44 


12 


10 


13 




1 


1 




8 


14 










1 
























Total 


4 


T 


18 


25 


34 


26 


14 


8 


4 


2 


142 


Median 


ie.2 



























From Table 40 it will be seen that some pupils are both poor 
and slow writers. There are others who write well and rapidly. 
Still others write at a fair rate of speed, but their quality is 
poor. Some produce a fair quality, but have a low rate of speed. 
It is desirable that children produce writing of good quality at 
a fair speed. Evidently some children need to improve in qual- 
ity, some in speed and others in both. 

The scores in both speed and quality for the five cities report- 
ing both are shown in Table 41. City No. 3 on the whole makes 

Table 41. — Median Scores in BotJi Speed and Qualify for Fine Cities 
Reporting Both 



Cities 



1. Quality 
Speed .. 



2. Quality 
Speed .. 



3. Quality 
Speed .. 



4. Quality 
Speed .. 



5. Quality 
Speed .. 



6.0 
24.4 



33.8 



7. .'J 
26.1 



III 



8.3 

48.0 



7.8 
19.0 



8.6 
48.2 



7.8 
45.5 



7.8 
44.2 



IV 



61.7 



8.4 
44.7 



9.2 
•59.6 



8.9 
56.3 



8.4 
63.4 



8.0 
55.0 



9.4 
75.5 



9.3 

68.4 



9.1 
56.5 



8.9 
69.9 



VI 



8.9 
68.3 



8.7 
65.8 



10.5 
63.0 



9.5 

56.6 



9.3 

70.7 



VII VIII 



9.0 
66.3 



9.4 

80.2 



10.7 
61.6 



10.3 
75.6 



10.9 
81.5 



12.0 
73.0 



11.1 
91.1 



11.0 

77.5 



11.0 

77.0 



the best showing in quality and city No. 5 makes the best record 
in speed. Taking both quality and speed together, these two 
cities are superior to the other three. Apparently those that 
place more emphasis on speed get better results in quality. 



S8 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



Figure IX is intended to represent in graphic form a combina- 
tion of the scores for quality and speed for each type of school. 
The portion of the bar to the left represents the median score in 
quality and the portion to the right the median score in speed 
in each case. The total length of the bar may be taken to repre- 
sent a combination of speed and quality. 



II 



IV 



c 

in 



VI 



VII 



VIII 



Quality 



7.S- 



7.7 



7.8 



_L6. 



TT 



86 



3X 



ss 



SJ- 



321 



_a3_ 



10. ^ 



10.7 



10.0 



Speed 




C - City G - State. Graded R - Rural 

Fig. IX. Speed and Quality of Handwriting in 
Each Class of Schools by Grades 



Summary and Conclusions 

The quality of writing in Wisconsin schools is only fair. It 
la not as good as that of Iowa children. Exceptions, however, 
occur. Some schools are markedly superior to others. There 
are some good writers in every school. The attainments of many 
of the children however represent an insufficient return upon 
the time invested. Fifty minutes per week is sufficient time to 
secure good results, but many fail to do so because of poor teach- 



Writing 89 

iiig. Children wlio exhibit unusual skill in their writing attain- 
ments should be permitted to devote much of the time ordinarily- 
given to writing to other subjects. This may serve also as an 
incentive to others to improve. The handwriting of pupils 
whose product is poor should be carefully studied to discover the 
teaching needs of each. In studies of this type the Freeman 
handwriting scale Avill be found helpful. When writing is well 
taught schools should be able to reach the standards set by Pro- 
fessor Freeman. 

Wisconsin children are not on the whole slow in their speed 
of writing. When speed and quality are taken together, how- 
ever, they do not compare favorably with Iowa children or with 
the standard set by Freeman. Rural schools make the best 
fchowing when both factors are considered. In state graded 
schools speed seems to be attained at the price of quality. Rapid 
writing is to be desired but it must be produced at a fair quality. 
The fact that some write several times as rapidly as others, and 
the fact that Wisconsin children write as rapidly as average 
children without Ibaving given particular attention to speed, 
suggests that a gain could be made if teachers made a conscious 
effort to improve the speed of slow writers. Rate of writing 
becomes a fixed habit which should be shaped early in life. Un- 
der present conditions some children will leave school with a 
"writing rate too slow for efficiency in any line. Much as some 
may stress the use of the typewriter the ordinary man writes 
with his hand. The grocery clerk, the saleswoman, the office 
worker, the banker, the reporter, the army clerk, and the teacher 
are all required to take notes which call for legibility and speed. 
Both must be stressed in the teaching of handwriting. Some 
children need to improve the quality of their writing, others 
their speed, and some both. 

Some Suggested References 
Discussions on the Measure7nent of Handwriting 

Ashbaugh, E. J. Handwriting of Iowa School Children. Extension 
Div. Bui. No. 15, Univ. of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 

Ayres, Leonard P. A Scale for Measuring the Quality of Handwriting 
of School Children. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. 

Ballou, F. W. Boston Dept. of Educational Investigation and Meas- 
urement Bui. No. IX, Penmanship. Price 7 cents. 

Breed & Down. Measuring and Standardizing Handwriting in a School . 
System. Elem. Sch. Jour., Mar. 1917. 



90 The tise of Some Standard Tests 

Freeman, P. N. An Analytical Scale for Judging Handwriting. Elem. 
School Journal. Apr. 1915. 

Freeman, F. N. Handwriting. Chap. V., Fourteenth Tear Book of the 
National Society for the Study of Education. 

Freeman, F. N. Some Practical Studies of Handwriting. Elem. 
School Teacher, Dec. 1913. 

Freeman, P. N. Survey of the St. Louis Public Schools, Vol. II, Hand- 
writing. 

Graves, S. Monroe. A Study in Handwriting. Jour, of Educ. Psy., 
Vol. VII, Oct. 1916. 

Gray, C. T. A Score Card for the Measurement of Handwriting. Bui. 
37, Univ. of Texas, Austin, Texas. 

Gray, C. T. The Training of Judgment in the Use of the Ayres Scale 
for Handwriting. Jour. Educ. Psychology, Feb. 1915. 

Johnson & Stone. Measuring the Quality of Handwriting. Elem. Sch. 
Jour., Feb. 1916. 

IJudd, C. H. Measuring the Work of the Schools. Handwriting. Re- 
port on tests in the Cleveland Survey. Russell Sage Foundation, 
N. Y. 

King & Newcomb. Improvement in Handwriting. Educ. Admin. & 
Supr., Oct. 1916. 

Koos, L. V. The Determination of Ultimate Standards of Quality in 
Handwriting. Elem. School Jour., Feb. 1918. 

Starch, Daniel. The Measurement of Efficiency in Handwriting. 
Jour. Educ. Psychology, Feb. 1915. 

Starch, Daniel. The Measurement of Handwriting. Jour. Educ. Psy- 
chology, Oct. 1913. 

Thorndike, E. L. Handwriting. Bureau of Pub., Teachers College, 
New York. 

Thorndike, E. L. Means of Measuring School Achievements in Hand- 
writing. Educ. Admin. & Supr., May 1915. 

See also various school survey reports: Butte, Cleveland, Denver, 
Grand Rapids, Janesville, Nassau Co., N. Y., Salt Lake, San Fran- 
cisco, St. Louis. 

Scales for Mea\suring Handwriting 

Ayres. A Scale for Measuring the Quality of Handwriting of School 
Children. "Three Slant Edition." Russell Sage Foundation, N. Y. 

Ayres. A Measuring Scale for Handwriting. "Gettysburg Edition." 

Freeman. Chart for Diagnosing Faults in Handwriting. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. 

Thorndike. A Scale for Haindwriting of Children. Bur. of Publica- 
tions, Teachers College, N. Y. 

Methods of Teaching Handwriting 

Bliss, D. C. Handwriting in Rapeer's book. Teaching Elementary 
School Subjects. Scribners. 

Charters, W. W. Teaching the Common Branches. Handwriting. 
Houghton Mifflin Co. 

Clark, A. W. The Teaching of Handwriting. Ginn & Co. 

Freeman, P. N. The Psychology' of the Common Branches. Hand- 
writing. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

Freeman, P. N. The Teaching of Handwriting. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

Kendall & Mirick. How to Teach the Fundamental Subjects. Hough- 
ton Mifflin Co. 

Lister, C. C. Muscular Movement in Handwriting. Macmillan. 

Helpful suggestions will also be found in the published courses of 

study of various places. 



CHAPTER IV 



COMPOSITION 

An attempt was made to measure success in English composi- 
tion in fifteen schools. In each case the test was given and 
scored under the immediate direction of the writer. The subject 
used was, "How I Should Like to Spend Next Saturday."^ 
Pupils were instructed to write a composition not to exceed one 
])age in length. Twenty minutes were allowed. No preliminary 
discussion of the subject was permitted. The "Hillegas Scale 
for Measuring English Composition" and the "Trabue Nassau 
County Supplement to the Hillegas Scale" were used in rating 
the papers. The former was employed in schools tested durir.g 
the first half of the year. In schools tested during the second 
semester botli scales were employed. If scores were to be re- 
corded' in terms of one of the scales, the other was used as a refer- 
ence to enable the scorer to verify his judgment of a given speci- 
men. 

The Trabue scale reproduced below consists principally of 
isipecimens written upon a subject almost identical with that used 
in the test. This made it more serviceable than the original 
Hillegas Scale and removed the criticisms sometimes offered 
against the Hillegas Scale, namely, that a number of the speci- 
mens are not original productions of children. 

THE TRABUE SCALE 

What I should like to do next Saturday 

Value 

0. I went going on to the Dox Saturdaye dnd day we the boys 

and I well going home and I well going the boys, and I will 
going these read in and they to night, and we or night. I 
well going a ground shalt and I gone out I will going to shea 
shouse and I will shoe or the skill of the shea of night. 

1.1 I intend to mak a snou man and make an fort and fort 

snou ball at chidern and hau I whist ma frant carolyn cole 
what were me I will going to the mauiss on Saturday. 
Georga will come went me. 



^ In a few cases Should was inadvertently given as Would. 



&2 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

at night I will going out went my mother to the marce 

I will mak the snou man and the fort in the moning and in 

the afternoon I will go to the mauies. 

I whist there whest school on Saturday 
1 . 9 one next S aturday I expect to go to the city leve next G atur- 

day to see my ofriend archie king I am going to grow to the 
baning balys circus with hime next S aturday fefore I go I have 
to do my jobs feedsing the cows ard horse ard chinkens and 
geese next Saturday 

My friend is a very good fellow to go and see So my mother 
S aid "If I do my work during Easter week vacation I can go 
to the barning baley circus with hime 
2.8 Once a pon a time there was a girl. One day she asked 

me what I was going to do next Saterday so I said, "I am going 
to go for a swim." And she said, "thats 

just were I am going to." next Saterday came we both went 
down together. We came home at noon time, after dinner we 
went to the picktures. There we had a good time. And then 
came home at night. 
3.8 I would like to go out in the after noon and play catch- 

ing the ball. Go over to Bertha's house and have a few girls to 
come with me and be on each others side. I have a tennis 
ball too play with. The game is that one person should stand 
quite aways from another person and throw the ball too one 
then another. Someone has to be in the middle and try too get 
the ball a way from someone t)ien she takes this persons place 
who she caught the ball from. Then till every person has a 
chance. 
5.0 Next Saturday I should like to go away and have a good 
time on a farm. I should like to watch the men plowing the 
fields and planting corn, wheat, and oats and other thingte 
planted on farms. 

Next Saturday I will go the Pioneer meeting if nothing hap- 
pens so that I cannot go. I should like to go swimming but it 
is not warm enough and I would catch a bad cold. I should like 
to go to my aunts and drive the horses, I do not drive without 
some' older person with me, so I cannot go very often. 

I should like to see my aunts cat and her kittens, too. I think 
I can, to. 
6.0 I should like to join my girl friends, who are going to 

the city on the 9:05 A. M. train. They are going shopping in 
the morning and will have lunch to-gether, then they are going 
to the Hippodrome. After the Hippodrome, they are all. going 
home to dinner to one of the girls houses, she lives on Riverside 
Drive so they expect to take the "Fifth Avenue Bus" up there. 
The evening will be devoted to playing games, singing and 
dancing. 
7.2 If I had a thousand dollars to spend, I think I would take 

a trip to San Francisco by train with the rest of the family, 
and stop at a sea-side hotel. It would be glorious to see the 
surf again, and to escape from the cold blustering weather of 
December for the balmy breezes of the ocean, and the whiff of 
orange blossoms. 

We could take long drives under shady trees, visit the orange 
and olive groves and bathe in the surf. Think of bathing in the 
ocean in December! 

Coming home again I should enjoy stopping at Yellow Stone 
Park. It would be lots of fun to camp out, and to ride over the 



Composition °^ 

prairies on frisky ponies. It would be very interesting to notice 
the change of climate as we got farther east, and to go to bed on 
the train one evening feeling warm, and waking up the next 
morning feeling very chilly. 

I am afraid by the time I would get home a thousand dollars 
would be pretty well used up; but if not I would like to give a 
party. 

8.0 One Sunday, towards the end of my summer vacation, I 

was in bathing at the Parkway Baths. In the Brighton Beach 
Motordrome, a few rods away, an aviation meet was going on. 
Several times one of the droning machines had gone whirring 
by over our heads, so that when the buzzing exhaust of a flier 
was heard it did not cause very much comment. Soon, however, 
the white planes of "Tom" Sopwith's Wright machine were seen 
glimmering above the grandstand. Everyone stood spellbound 
as he circled the track several times and then headed out to sea. 
He was seen to have a passenger with him. Suddenly, the regu- 
lar hum of his motor was broken by severe pops, and the engine 
ran slower, missing fire badly. In response, to Sopwith's move- 
ments, the big flier tilted and swooped down to the beach from 
aloft like an eagle. The terrified crowd made a rush to get out 
of the way as the airship came on, but Sopwith could not land 
on the beach, but skimmed along close to the water instead. 
Suddenly his wing caught the water, and the big machine somer- 
saulted and sank beneath the waves. The aviators soon came 
bobbing up and were taken away in a launch, but the accident 
will not soon be forgotten by those who saw it. 

9.0 The courage of the panting fugitive was not gone; she was 

game to the tip of her high-bred ears; but the fearful pace at 
which she had just been going told on her. Her legs trembled, 
and her heart beat like a triphammer. She slowed her speed per- 
force, but still fied industriously up the right bank of the 
stream. When she had gone a couple of miles and the dogs 
were evidently gaining again, she crossed the broad, deep brook, 
climbed the steep left bank, and fled on in the direction of the 
Mt. Marcy trail. The fording of the river threw the hounds 
off for a time; she knew by their uncertain yelping, up and 
down the opposite bank, that she had^a little respite; she used it, 
however, to push on until the baying was faint in her ears, and 
then she dropped exhausled upon the ground. 

The first sample on the scale is very poor in quality. Each 
successive sample represents increased merit. The merit in- 
creases by approximately equal increments as may be judged 
from the values attached to the successive samples, 0, 1.1, 1.9, 
2.8, 3.8, 5, 6, 7.2, 8, 9. The value attached to each sample is the 
result of a large number of judgments based upon the theory 
that differences equally often noticed are equal. Thus if one- 
half of the judges estimate a given specimen A as possessing 
more merit than another specimen B and one-half estimate B as 
superior to A, the best we can say is that the two possess equal 
merit. Were all of the judges to rate B as superior to A we 
would know that B is better than A, but not how much better. 



94 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

But if only 75% of the judges consider B as better than A, then 
B is superior to A by some definite amount. If in addition 75% 
of the judges regard a third specimen C as better than B, and an 
equal per cent regard a fourth specimen D as better than C, and 
so on, we have the essentials of a scale. Each successive sample 
then represents a uniform increase in merit, and this uniform in- 
crease (i. e. an increase which 75% of judges recognize) becomes 
the unit to be employed in constructing the scale. It was through 
a process such as this that the samples on the scales were selected 
from a large number of specimens. Specimens which did not 
conform to the ''75%" distribution of judgments, were re- 
jected. As a matter of fact the scale makers did not find an 
entire set of specimens that conformed to this requirement, but 
they selected those which most nearly did so. It is for that rea- 
son that instead of having a scale with values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc, 
we have 0, 1.1, 1.8, 2.8, 3.8, 5, etc. 

To use the scale we place the pupil's specimen beside the scale 
and find the particular scale sample to which the child's produc- 
tion most nearly corresponds in general merit. It is best to find 
first a sample on the scale which is not as good as the pupil's 
specimen. Then a second scale sample should be found which is 
clearly superior to the child's production to be rated. This 
establishes the limits within which the correct value of the speci- 
men we are rating lies, and facilitates the work of scoring. This 
method was used in each school tested. Where doubt arose as 
to whether a given specimen deserved the mark of a particular 
scale sample, e. g. 5, the scorers were instructed to compare it 
with the scale sample just above, i. e. 6, and the sample just be- 
low i. e. 3.8. If the pupil's specimen appeared to be better than 
the scale sample below, but not as good as the one above, i. e. 
better than 3.8 but not as good as 6, it was to be given the mark 
of the intermediate step, in this case 5. The mark was placed on 
the back of the specimen, obscured from view, and the paper 
rated by a second judge. If the two judges agreed the paper 
was not scored further. If they disagreed it was rated by a third 
judge. Then if two of the scorers agreed their mark was taken 
as the final mark. If all three differed the intermediate mark 
was taken, on the assumption that one judge rated it too high 
and the other too low. 



Composition 95 

Before scoring the papers of an actual class the teachers who 
rated the specimens were given some preliminary practice in the 
use of the scale. For this purpose selected specimens of known 
value from Thorndike's ''English Composition, 150 Specimens 
Arranged for Use in Psychological and Educational Experi- 
ments," were used in many cases, though not in all. As a part 
of the preliminary practice, and in order to enable teachers to 
form some notion of the advantages of marking with a scale, 
they were first asked to rate each practice specimen on a scale 
of 100. After recording these ratings they were asked to rate 
each specimen in terms of the scale. To convert the latter to a 
per cent basis the scale ratings were multiplied by 10. When all 
had completed their ratings the correct or standard value for 
each specimen was made Imown. The number of points which 
each specimen was rated too high or too low, both with and with- 
out the scale, was then recorded. In every case it was found 
that the group of teachers as a whole rated more accurately 
with the scale than without. This was not always true of every 
teacher nor of every specimen. In most schools improvement 
resulting from the use of the scale was shown by a decrease in 
variation from the correct values of from one-third to one-half 
of that when judging without the scale. A detailed account of 
the preliminary experiment in one of the schools tested will be 
found in the issue of School and Society for February 2, 1918. 

In this school fifteen teachers were asked to rate twelve speci- 
mens. It was found that when estimating on a scale of 100 they 
were not only far from the correct value, but they rated almost 
invariably too high. Mediocre specimens were given a good 
mark. On the other hand some very good specimens were rated 
too low, because the teachers failed to appreciate their real 
merits. If the practice of rating mediocre specimens too high 
is general in everyday work, and there is good reason for be- 
lieving that it is, teachers are undoubtedly not getting the best 
out of their pupils. Instead of stimulating pupils to the highest 
quality of thinking they are capable of, the teachers are too 
readily satisfied with mediocre efforts. The occasional use of a 
scale to measure the quality of children's compositions should 
do much to stimulate better work in composition. 

"When asked to grade specimens for their general merit on a 
scale of 100, the teachers, as teachers in most schools, eoraplained 



96 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

that they must know the grade to which a given specimen be- 
longed. This is due to the fact that teachers use one arbitrary 
standard in one grade and another in the next. If they are 
asked to tell what a mark of 80% on a seventh grade paper 
should be if that paper were produced in the sixth, they are 
utterly at sea. The fact that these teachers estimated poor 
specimens unduly high and that they underestimated some of the 
very best, seems to be good evidence that teachers ordinarily 
mark on the basis of their general impressions. When they are 
asked to rate a composition with a scale, and to make general 
merit the basis of their rating, they are not adopting a basis 
v/hich is essentially new or different. 

These 15 teachers were on the average 19.1 points away from 
the correct or standard value for each specimen when judging 
upon a 100 per cent basis. When they used the Trabue scale 
to, aid them in their rating they averaged 11.6 points from the 
standard value. Thus they improved their judgments by an 
average of 7.5 points or 39.1% for each specimen, in their first 
efforts at using a scale. With continued use they could doubt- 
less improve their ratings still more. Experiments in judging 
handwriting indicate that improvement in accuracy of rating 
with a scale continues over a considerable period of practice. 
(See Gray, Journal of Educational Psychology, Feb. 1915). If 
improvement continues in judging such a simple function as 
handwriting, there is no reason to believe that it would not con- 
tinue to improve in a complex function like composition. The 
writer found in a single experiment with fifteen judges that im- 
provement in rating composition continued to show in each of 
the four successive practice periods. 

Not only did the judgment of these teachers as a whole im- 
prove when aided by a scale, but the judgment of every teacher, 
except one, improved on one-half or more of the specimens. 
This one teacher was the best of the twelve judges without the 
scale. Yet she improved on four of the twelve specimens. She 
rated six the same in both cases. On two she did not judge as 
accurately. Out of 180 individual ratings required (i. e. 15 
teachers judging 12 specimens) 125 or 69.4% showed a gain, 20 
remained the same and 35 were not as good when using the scale. 
The results of this experiment indicate the increase in accuracy 
X)i judging compositions to be gained from the use of a scale. 



Composition 



97 



The Median Scores. What is the quality of the compositions 
v;hich Wisconsin children write? The median scores for each 
city by grades together with the date of the test and the sections 
tested are shown in Table 42, The median for all children 
tested, together with Trabue's proposed standards are given at 
the foot of the table. The schools have been arranged in ap- 
proximate order of the portion of the work of the grade which the 
children had on the average completed. 





Table 42. — Median Scores in Composition hy Cities' 






Cities 


Date 
tested 


Section 
tested 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


NO. Of 

children 

tested 


1 


9/28/16 
10/ 3/16 
10/ 9/16 
10/23/16 
11/27/16 
12/ 5/16 
12/12/16 

1/ 9/17 

1/ m 

3/24/17 
3/ 8/17 
4/10/17 
4/12/17 
6/ 4/17 
6/ 6/17 

Total.... 


B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 
A&B 
A&B 

A 

A 

A 
A&B 
A&B 








3.9 

4.9 
3.7 
4.2 
4.7 
4.2 
2.7 
4.2 
3.8 
3.7 
4.4 
4.2 
4.2 

'4.' 8 A 


4.9 

5.6 

4.2 

4.6 

5.0 

4.4 

3.7 

5.4 

4.0 

3.8 

4.2 

4.1 

3.8 

5.3B 

4.5A 










79 


9 


2.4 

1.9 

'2!6 
2.6 

1.7 

'2!6'" 

1.7 
1.7A 


4.0 
2.7 
2.9 
3.2 
2.3 
1.6 
2.5 
2.8 
2.4 
2.9 
2.1 
3.0 
2.9 
3.2 


4.4 
3.0 
3.7 
4.3 
2.4 
2.6 
3.9 
3.3 
2.8 
3.7 
3.9 
3.5 
3.6B 


5.0 
4.3 
5.3 








530 


3 








331 


4 
5 


4.8 


5.7 


6.7 


467 
344 


6 


4.4 
4.7 
4.9 
4.2 
4.3 








315 


7 








331 


8 








353 


9 








1,209 


10 

11 


5.9 


6.9 




1,208 
84 


12 


4.5 
4.3 
5.4B 
5.6A 








186 


13 
14 


4.9 


5.0 


5.4 


169 
128 


15 








114 


































5,848 


Combined 


Median .. 




2.0 


2.7 
3.5 


3.4 
4.0 


4.0 
4.5 


4.3 
5.0 


4.6 
i>.5 


5.8 
6.0 


6.6 
6.5 


6.4 
6.9 


Trabue's 


Standard. . 

















^ Those desiring to make comparisons with schools outside of Wisconsin may do so by refer- 
ring to page 287 of "An Educational Survey of Janesville, Wisconsin." 

The children as a whole in these Wisconsin cities do not make 
a commendable showing. There is, however, a considerable dif- 
ference between the scores of different cities. The median for 
all eighth grades is only 4.6 which means the average eighth 
grade pupils did not write a composition as good as sample 5 
on the Trabue Scale. Median sixth grade children did little 
better than the sample of the scale valued at 3.8. The median 
cf 2 for the third grade is just above Trabue's sample 1.9. The 
progress from median third grade performance to median 
eighth grade performance is less than three steps on the Trabue 
scale. This is certainly inadequate improvement for five addi- 
tional years of effort. In the best schools the median score was 
an entire step and sometimes as much as two steps higher on the 
s'cale. Why this difference, or why some schools should do much 



98 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

Ijetter than others is somewhat difficult to understand. In some 
cases the scores may have been somewhat lenient, but the prin- 
cipal cause is a difference in teaching. Composition is better 
taught in some schools than in others. A single illustration will 
make this clearer. 

City No. 4 made a good showing in the elementary grades, 
particularly when the date of the test is considered. This school 
gives much attention to oral composition. The socialized recita- 
tion, in which pupils are encouraged to express themselves freely, 
is in use in this school. These two facts have resulted in shift- 
ing the major emphasis in language teaching from mechanics to 
thought work. The children in this school, more so than in some 
others, are primarily concerned with what they have to say. 
They are concerned with saying something worth while first of 
all. The mechanics, the cast, or framework, for what they say 
is secondary. This does not mean that they do not acquire a 
knowledge of the necessary mechanics of good composition equal 
to that of other children, but they do it as a result of a felt need 
for clothing what they have to say. A few selected papers from 
the test in this school follow : 

By a Fourth grade girl — age 10. Rated as 3.8 

Next Saturday I would like to go to Appleton and play with my 
cousins. 

T would go with my mother, father, and sister. 

I would go at 10 a clock in the morning so I would have lots of time 
to play or do anything that came along. 

I would go and have a ice-cream with my cousins in the afternoon. 
"When I came home I would spend the rest of the afternoon playing 
or doing something like that. 

Then I would eat supper and after supper go home on the street-car 
at about 8 a clock. 
When I came home I would go to bed. 

By an Eighth grade boy — age 12. Rated, as 6 

Saturday is the only vacation day of the whole school term except- 
ing holidays of which there are very few. I should like to go rabbit 
hunting next Saturday out to some farm. It is just the rabbit sea- 
son now and a fellow's fingers are twitching for the want of shooting 
a rabbit. Besides hunting there is pleasure in roaming around in the 
woods or plying about a marsh or swamp in a boat. There are many 
ether things to shoot such as squirrels, partridges, and ducks. I 
would like to know of any fellow who would not like to do this next 
Saturday. 

By a Tenth grade hoy — age 16. Rated as 7.2 

I would like to spend next Saturday along the lake shore hunting 
ducks. Hunting is one of the finest sports there is and as the duck 
season is now open and the ducks seem quite plentiful, nothing appeals 



Composition 99 

to me more than a days shootting. The very thought is invigorating. 
Anyone who has ever hunted knows what the attraction is. There are 
no words to explain how you feel when sitting behind a "blind" watch- 
ing a flock of ducks come sweeping, pass, circle, and then land among 
the decoys with a splash. Then the sport comes, when you rise up and 
pump shell after shell into the flock and then go out in the skiff and 
gather in your game. To hunt is the instinct of man which hb in- 
herited from his primeval forefathers. And through all the ages in 
which man has become slowly civilized that instinct has still remained, 
even though greatly moderated. 

The medians in schools which made high scores should serve 
as a tentative goal which others may hope to attain with im- 
proved teaching. Certainly a school in which language work 
is well taught should reach Trabue's standard. While it is an 
ideal rather than an actual standard, it appears to be neither 
impossible of attainment nor too exacting. That this standard 
is not too exacting may be judged by referring to the scale speci- 
mens. In fact it is lower than the best fourth of the pupils in 
several of our grades are already doing. This may be seen by 
reference to the figures for the upper 25 percentile in Table 43. 
Surely it is not asking too much that seventh grade children 
write a composition as good as quality five, or that pupils in the 
ninth grade of the high school write as well as quality six. That 
the standards set by Trabue from grade four on are not impos- 
sible of attainment, is shown by the fact that some schools in 
every elementary grade did even better. 

The Variation Within Grades — Do All Children of a Grade do 
Equally Well? The number of pupils in each grade whose 
papers were rated at each of the different steps may be seen 
from Table 43. The median and the lower and upper 25 percen- 
tile scores are shown at the foot of the tables. One-half in each 
grade did better than the median and the other half did not do 
as well. Three-fourths of the pupils in each grade did better 
than the lower 25 percentile and one-fourth did better than the 
upper 25 percentile. There is a very decided difference between 
the composition attainments of the best and poorest in every 
grade. The range of third grade scores extends more than 
half the length of the scale. One-half of the children however 
were between 1.3 and 2.8. In the sixth and seventh grade the 
range extends almost over the entire scale. This means that 
compositions produced by children in these grades range from 
the very poorest to almost the very best that we may expect. 



100 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



Table 43. — Distribution of Composition Scores According to Quality 

For 15 Cities 























No. of 


Value of 


ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


children 


specimen! 




















tested 





59 

216 
140 


34 

314 
3S9 


139 

283 


6 

62 
197 


1 

34 
121 


4 
12 

84 








124 


1.83 


1 
3 






778 


2.60 


1 




1,218 


3.69 


50 


254 


318 


356 


261 


212 


24 


7 


3 


1,485 


4.74 


12 


80 


172 


292 


226 


204 


55 


25 


1 


1,067 


5.85 


1 


42 


72 


107 


126 


159 


87 


35 


17 


646 


6.75 




10 


21 


61 


71 


85 


65 


52 


16 


381 


7.72 




3 


1 


18 


21 


23 


22 


31 


7 


126 


8.3S 








4 


2 






16 


1 


23 
















Total 


478 


1,126 


1,026 


1,103 


868 


783 


257 


167 


45 


5,848 






Lower 25 percentile 


1.3 


1.9 


2.5 


3.2 


3.4 


3.6 


4.9 


5.6 








2.0 

2.8 


2.7 
3.6 


3.4 
4.3 


4.0 
5.0 


4.3 
5.3 


4.6 
5.7 


5.8 
6.6 


6.6 
7.4 


6.4 




Upper 2a percentile 









1 Tbe results have been entered in terms of the steps on the original Hillegas scale. 
The results for the few schools reported in terms of the Trabue scale have been distrib- 
uted according to the nearest Hillegas scale step to which each pupil's score corre- 
sponded. Thus specimens rated 3.8 on the Ttabue scale appear opposite 3.69 in the 
table. 



The lamentable thing about it all is that these very poor and 
very good composition writers are too often in the same grade, 
and often in the same class with no provision being made to fit 
the teaching to their varying needs. Some children have been 
promoted to the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades who are 
ill no sense capable of doing the quality of language work that 
should be expected in these grades. Evidently the ability to 
write an average composition does not play the part that it 
should in determining fitness for promotion in some schools. 
Many of these children could derive greater benefits from the 
study of composition if placed in grades or classes where the 
work is nearer their level of comprehension. 

The upper 5% of the fourth grade pupils who already do as 
well as median eighth graders, or the upper quarter who now 
exceed the lower quarter of the seventh grade, will never be urged 
to the limit of their capacities unless they are given a different 
type of work, or are advanced more rapidly than others in the 
grade. Unless their ability is recognized they are apt to improve 
but little during the remaining years. Unless teachers can ap- 
peal to their imagination or can tax their real thought powers, 
they may become indifferent toward language work and even 
grow to dislike school. This will be particularly true if teach- 



Composition 101 

ers insist upon drilling all of the class upon rules of formal 
grammar. What we have said of the fourth grade applies 
equally well to other grades. These brighter children in each 
grade should be .permitted to advance more rapidly. Work 
should be given them that is more nearly within their capacity. 
Wherever possible the brighter children should be grouped to- 
gether for language work, even though it be only a small group 
within a given grade or class. 

Similarly children of less capacity should be grouped together. 
Their deficiencies may be due to unfavorable language condi- 
tions in the home, to inferior mental endowments, or to poor pre- 
vious school training. But whatever the cause, the fact of their 
lack of development should be recognized. They should not be 
thrown in "helter-skelter" with others who are unusually ac- 
complished to succeed or flounder as best they may. They should 
be grouped with others who for the time being are approximately 
their equals. 

When children are grouped as we have indicated, teachers 
can more nearly adapt the work of the course to individual 
needs. The lockstep method of teaching all pupils in a class as 
though they were of the same level of attainment and thinking 
ability needs to be broken down in language teaching even more 
so than in other subjects. Slavish adherence to the "equality" 
method of treatment perhaps more than any other cause is re- 
sponsible for the poor showing in many schools. It accounts 
for the unusual degree of overlapping of abilities, i. e. where 
large numbers of children in lower grades excelled no small pro- 
portion of the children in several grades above. This is re- 
vealed in Table 43. 

The Kind of Work WJiich Teachers Demand — What Qualities 
do teachers value in children's compositions? Another factor 
only slightly less responsible for poor results in language, is the 
formal type of excellence which teachers expect, and with which 
they are satisfied. So long as teachers prize minor qualities to 
the neglect of the more valuable attributes of good composition 
they will fail to develop the best in children. Mechanical per- 
fection is too frequently the aim, both in the elmentary gra_des 
and in the high school. Content receives secondary considera- 
tion. Just as overemphasis upon formal grammar fails to de- 
velop children who will habitually use correct form in written 



102 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

and spoken English, so too overemphasis upon the mechanical 
phases of composition fails to develop children who can produce 
oral or written compositions of genuine merit. Too rarely does 
it develop in a child a desire to express himself. All too often 
composition writing becomes a drudgery, and not a privilege. 

Almost without exception the teachers in schools tested, when 
asked to list the qualities which they prize in composition, men- 
tion mechanical qualities first. Among these they give: 

Spelling Paragraphing Use of capitals 

Punctuation Gramm.ar Sentence structure 

Apparently they would exercise little better judgment in grad ■ 
ing a paper than does the college professor who marks a paper 
"failed" if it contains three misspelled words, regardless of the 
ideas it expresses. Too many teachers, it is feared, have been 
influenced by the type of college instructor who fails a theme 
for what is commonly known as a "comma" fault, serious though 
it may be mechanically. It was usually only after some discus- 
sion that thought qualities, such as the following, were brought 
out: 

Unity Maturity of thought Emphasis 

Coherence Life Vividness 

Originality Imagination Color 

Choice of words Visualization Figurative language 

Many of the mechanical features are such as would pass un- 
noticed in oral composition, and therein lies one advantage to be 
gained from oral language work. Mechanical features are less 
apt to be placed in the foreground. Thought qualities have a 
greater possibility of being stimulated. Insufficient attention 
to oral composition is then another cause, which helps to account 
for the unsatisfactory attainments of children in composition. 

But even though gain will be made by a greater stress upon 
oral language, the best results can never be expected until teach- 
ers aim consciously and definitely at the development of the 
thought side. Thej^ must lead their pupils first of all to think, 
to observe, to have ideas, to reflect upon their experiences, and 
to tell them. Teachers must concern themselves above all with 
T\-hat children have to say, and only secondarily with the way in 



Composition 103 

which it is said. Under this system, form will not be neglected 
but ability to use it will be acquired because the child feels a 
need for saying what he has to say in the most effective way. 

Some Suggested References 
Discussions on the Mea/surement of Composition 

Ballou, F. W. Scales for the Measurement of English Composition. 

Harvard-Newton Bui. No. 2. 
Breed & Frostic. Measuring English Composition in the Sixth Grade. 

Elem. School Journal, Jan. 1917. 
Chapman & Rush. The Scientific Measurement of Classroom Products. 

Composition Scales. Silver Burdett & Co. 
Haggerty & Brown. The Measurement of Improvement in English 

Composition. English Journal, Oct. 1917. 
Haggerty, M. E. Measurements & Diagnoses as Aids to Supervision. 

School d Society, Sept. 8, 1917. 
Hillegas, M. B. A Scale for the Measuremnet of English Composition 

by Young People. Bur. of Publications, Teachers College, N. Y. 

Also in Teachers College Record, Sept. 1912. 
Hudelson, E. Standards & Measurements in English Composition 

Second Conference on Educ. Meas., Indiana Univ., Bloomington. 
Kelly, F. J. Teachers Marks, Composition. Bur. of Publications, 

Teachers College, N. Y. 
Stark, W. E. Measurement of Eighth Grade Composition. School d- 

Society. Aug. 7, 1915. 
Theisen, W. W. Improving Teachers' Estimates of Composition Speci- 
mens with the Aid of the Trabue Nassau County Scale. School d- 

Society. Feb. 2, 1918. 
Trabue, M. R. Supplementing the Hillegas Scale. Teachers College 

Record, Jan. 1917. 
"Willing, M. H. The Measurement of Written Composition in Grades 

IV to VIII. English Journal, Mar. 1918. 
See also various school surveys: Butte, Salt Lake, Denver, Janesville, 

Grand Rapids, Nassau Co., N. Y., St. Paul. 

Composition Scales 

Ballou's Harvard Newton Composition, Scales. Harvard University 

Press. Price 10c. 
Hillegas — Scale for English Composition by Young People. Bureau of 

Publications, Teachers College, N. Y. Price, 3c; in quantities, 2c. 
Thorndike Extension of the Hillegas Scale. Bureau of Publications, 

Teachers College, N. Y. Price, 8c; in quantities, 5c. 
Trabue's Nassau County Supplement to the Hillegas Scale. Bureau of 

Publications, Teachers College, N. Y. Price, 8c; in quantities, 5c. 
Willing Scale. Used in the Denver Survey. Bureau of Measurements 

and Standards, Emporia, Kansas. 

Methods of Teaching Composition 

Charters, W. W. Teaching the Common Branches. Row, Peterson & 
Co. 

Charters, W. W. 16th Year Book, National Society for the Study of 
Education, Part I. Minimal Essentials in Elementary Language 
and Grammar. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. 



104 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

Deming, A. G. Language Games for all Grades. Beckley Cardy Co. 

Earhart & Small. English in the Elementary School, Elementary 
School Journal, September 1915. 

Goldwasser, I. E. Method and Methods in Teaching of English. Heath 
& Co. 

Hosic, J. F. Composition in Rapeer's book, Teaching Elementary 
School Subjects. Scribners. 

Hosic, J. F. Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools. U. S. 
Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 2, 1917. 

Hosic, J. F. The Elementary Course in English. University of Chi- 
cago Press. 

Hosic, F. J. nth Year Book, National Society for the Study of Edu- 
cation. Composition Standards in Grades Two to Eight, Public 
School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. 

Klapper, Paul. The Teaching of English. Appleton & Co. 

Leiper, M. A. Language Work in Elementary Schools. Ginn & Co. 

Palmer, G. H. Self Cultivation in English. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chapter XI. 
Ginn & Co. 

Parkinson, L. D. Variety in Composition Assignments. English 
Journal, June 1918. 

Sheridan, B. M. Speaking and Writing in English. Sanborn & Co. 



CHAPTER V 



READING 

For the year 1916-17 systematic attempts to measure success 
in reading achievements were confined to silent reading. Other 
pliases of reading work such as rates of silent and oral reading, 
expression in oral reading, and ability to read orally without 
error, all of which are important for certain purposes, and nearly 
all of which receive distinct emphasis in the elementary grades, 
might be tested. Those who are especially interested in test- 
ing these phases of reading are referred to the works of Gray. 
Among these are his monograph, ' ' Studies in Elementary School 
Reading", and his reports on reading in connection with the 
St. Louis and Grand Rapids surveys. 

AVhile it would have been desirable oftentimes to have secured 
data on each of the various phases of reading ability, it was de- 
cided not to recommend tests requiring a large amount of labor, 
or which required scorers to exercise considerable judgment in 
marking papers. To those who desired to measure results in 
reading it was suggested that success in thought reading be 
tested first, on account of its overshadowing importance. 

Progress in and out of school depends largely upon ability to 
interpret the printed page. While the first few years of a 
child's reading efforts are devoted largely to a mastery of me- 
chanics it is for "the purpose of enabling him later to understand 
the language of books and to derive information from history, 
geography, science and literature. The child who is unable to 
grasp clearly the thought of the problem in arithmetic, or the 
events recorded in his history text, has little hope of success in 
these subjects. It is of small concern to his successful advance 
whether his oral reading is fluent and devoid of mechanical er- 
rors. 

If a child is to go through school and out into life as a clear 
thinking progressive citizen, he must be trained not only to read. 



106 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

but to relish reading for the information it gives him and for the 
growth of ideas that it stimulates. No other mission which the 
school has is more important than such training. Nothing is 
of more consequence to a nation than a body of growing thinkers. 
Its citizens must be trained to read what its thinkers are writ- 
ing, and to exercise judgment as to the worth of what is read. 
The small proportion of our citizens who read the kind of ma- 
terial which stimulates intelligent thinking, can be charged 
largely to the failure of the schools in the past to develop the 
right kind of reading habits. It was for reasons such as these, 
that tests which measure ability to grasp the thought of the 
printed page were favored when recommendations were made 
to those desiring reading tests. 

In suggesting reading tests to be used during the year 1916- 
17, the writer more often proposed the Kansas Silent Reading 
Test than any other. The test not only measures success in 
rapid thought reading but is easily administered and scored. 
The latter consideration was especially important in view of the 
fact that few teachers and superintendents in Wisconsin had 
had previous experience in giving standard tests. While criti- 
cism might be offered against certain of the paragraphs on the 
test, the simplicity and definiteness of the instructions for giv- 
ing the test, scoring the papers, and tabulating the results 
seemed to outweigh any objections that might be raised. 

The Kansas Silent Reading Test, the nature of which may be 
judged from the selected paragraphs shown on the page follow- 
ing, combines the elements of thought and speed. It contains 
a greater number of such paragraphs than can be answered by 
any pupil in the time given, five minutes. The paragraphs vary 
from those that are very easy to those that are quite difficult. 
A definite value is attached to each and a pupil's score repre- 
sents the sum of the A^alues attached to paragraphs correctly in- 
terpreted. There are three tests in the series. Test I for grades 
three, four and five, Test II for grades six, seven and eight, and 
Test III for high school grades. 

Eighteen cities reported their results on the test in the ele- 
mentary grades. Two of them included the scores made by high 
school students. The test in 15 of these cities was given by the 
writer. In most instances, however, he was assisted by the su- 
perintendent or some person designated by him. In each ease 



Reading 



107 



No. 8. 



Value 
2.6 



Here are two squ ares. Draw a line from the upper left-hand 
corner of the small square to the lower rig-ht-hancl corner of the 
large square. 



D D 



Ko. 9. 

A farmer puts one-half the hay from his field into the first stack, 
then two- thirds of what is left into a second stack, and the remain- 
der in a third stack. Which stack is the largest? 



No. 10. 

Below are two squares and a circle. If the circle is the largest 
of the three, put a cross in it. If one square is smaller than the 
circle, put a cross in the large square. If both squares are smaller 
than the circle, put a cross in the small square, 



D O D 



No. 11. 



"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea. 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me "— ■ 



Gray) 



Study the above quotation carefully. The author lets us know his 
feeling about the coming of night. If you think his feeling is one 
of fear and dread, underscore curfew. If his feeling is one of peace 
and gladness, underscore ploughman. 



No. 12. 



Read these carefully: 
Bears are larger than bugs. 
Houses are larger than Ijears. 
Mountains are larger than houses. 
Then bugs are not as large as mountains. 

I have tried to make no false statement among these four. If I 
have succeeded, underline the word success. If I have failed, un- 
derline the word failure. 



success 



failure 



108 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



the person assisting, first observed the writer give the test, and 
Avas instructed by him before attempting to give the test himself. 
The principal requirement necessitating caution was that of ac- 
curate timing. In the three schools in which the tests were not 
given under the immediate direction of the writer, the persons 
in charge were experienced in giving standard tests. 
The Median Scores hy Cities 

How well do Wisconsin children read? The median scores, 
the date of the test and the sections tested for each city are in- 
dicated in Table 44. " B " sections in schools tested during the 
first semester, or " A " sections in those tested during the second 
refer to schools having only annual promotions. 

Table 44. — Median Scores For Kansas Silent Reading Test By Cities 



Cities 


Date of 

test 


Spction 
tested 


Test I 


Test II 


Test III 


No. 

tested 


in 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


1 


9/28/16 

10/ 3/16 

10/10/16 

2/12/17 

11/ 2/16 

11/ 9/16 

11/27/16 

12/ 7/16 

12/12/16 

1/10/17 

1/ 2/17 

3/24/17 

3/ 6/17 

3/ 8/17, 

5/10/17 

1/ /ir 

4/10/17 

4/12/17 


B 

B 

B 
A&B 

B 

B 

Bi 

B 

B 

B 

B 
A&B 

A 

A 

A 
A&B 

A 

A 






14.6 
12.1 
15.3 
12.0 
13.3 
12.8 
13.5 
13.1 


17.3 
12.0 
11.1 
13.8 
11.9 
,12.8 
14.6 
14.4 
10.7 
19.0 
14.5 
14.7 
14.6 
15.3 

'26!6' 
10.8 
13.5 






17.6 


30.5 


23.2 




132 


2 


1.2 
1.7 
3.3 

5.7 
3.4 
2.3 
14.0 


4.4 
5.1 
5.3 
6.9 
7.0 
10.7 
9.3 


14.2 
17.8 
15.3 
16.7 
15.2 
19.2 
15.9 
12.2 
18.0 
19.2 
16.5 
21.6 
16.0 
15.9 
20.1 
17.0 
16.5 


16.3 
20.2 
18.9 
20.4 
28.1 
16.2 
17.4 
16.5 
19.6 
21.3 
20.1 
17.7 
13.0 
16.3 
30.8 
19.8 
20.3 


552 


3 










431 


4 










494 












719 


g 










476 


7 
8 
9 










422 




..1 




316 










96 


10 
11 
12 
13 
14 


5.3 
11.9 
4.9 
5.3 
4.5 
2.1 
6.0 
6.3 
0.8 


11.0 
17.4 

9.2 
10.0 
11.2 

6.3 
11.8 
11.3 

8.5 


17.5 
14.8 
12.1 
14.7 
14.7 
10.6 
16.9 
15.0 
12.0 










358 










152 


22.4 


24.4 


27.6 


26.4 


1,390 
517 










128 


15 
16 
17 
18 










303 










760 










228 










75 












Median 
Standa 






4.3 
5.3 


8.B 
9.5 


13.6 
13.2 


14.1 
13.9 


17.1 


19.8 










7,549 


rd 


















r 1 1 





The cities are arranged in the approximate order of the por- 
tion of the work of the grade which the children had on the av- 
erage completed at the time of the test. Thus, pupils in the 
first city of the table had completed less than one-ninth of the 
work of the grade, while those in the eighteenth had completed 
approximately eight-ninths of the grade. Children in cities 
near the foot of the table should score much higher than those 
in cities near the top. 

An examination of the table reveals the fact that as far as 
these schools are representative, Wisconsin children are below 



Reading 109 

the standard in the third and fourth grades. This is in line with 
conclusions drawn from reading exercises witnessed in these 
grades. Few teachers give sufficient attention to training young 
children to get rapidly and accurately the thought of what they 
read. In the remaining elementary grades Wisconsin children 
read better than the standard set by 100,000 children in other 
states. 

The table reveals further that different schools attain different 
degrees of success in the teaching of reading. With the possible 
exception of the scores for the third and fourth grades of 
schools tested early in the school year, the median scores bear 
little relation to the work of the grade which the children had 
completed. Some of the very lowest scores were made late in 
the year. 

Since Test I was identical in grades three, four and five, com- 
parisons may be made between these grades. Similarly grades 
six, seven and eight in which Test II was used may be compared. 
Some fifth grade classes did not do as well as others of the 
fourth. Likewise, some fourth grade classes made a lower me- 
dian score than some third classes, and some even lower than the 
standard of the third grade. The poorest eighth grade class 
scored lower than the standard for grade six. The best eighth 
grade classes scored more than double that of the poorest. The 
best sixth grade score is nearly double that of the poorest. Such 
conditions sre unwarranted and cannot be accounted for on any 
other ground than that some schools accomplish much less than 
they are capable of. When sixth grade classes in some schools 
can read as well as eighth grade classes in others, as happens, 
eighth grade teachers should be asked to explain why their chil- 
dren have attained no greater proficienc3^ On the other hand 
successful teachers in the sixth grade, and elsewhere, should be 
asked to explain the secrets of their success in teaching reading. 
Demonstrations should be arranged which other teachers may be 
permitted to see and to discuss. Better teaching, closer supervi- 
sion of the methods employed, and more careful examination of 
successful methods of teaching reading, as well as an abundance 
of suitable reading material will be necessary in many schools 
before the limit of the possibilities in reading development can 
be even approached. 



110 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

The scores shown for school 11 and for the third grade of 
school 8 deserve mention. For the latter the writer verified the 
results by examining the paper of each child' in the single class 
represented. These children are unusually capable and will 
bear watching throughout their school course. School 11 made 
a good showing not only in the third grade but in others. It is 
a good illustration of successful results attained through a con- 
scious effort to develop good reading. The interest of the su- 
perintendent in this city led him to measure the achievements 
of the pupils in other standard reading tests. For this purpose 
the Starch and the Thorndike reading tests were employed. It 
is significant that the children again far exceeded the standards 
set. Undoubtedly, the children in this school are good readers. 

Two phases of the method of teaching reading in this school 
account in a measure for its success. One of these is the group- 
ing of the children. Pupils of a given grade are divided for the 
purposes of the reading recitation into several small groups. 
Each group reads material suited to the abilities of the children 
in it. As many reading texts may be in use at a given moment 
as there are groups. Children of a group commonly read to the 
other members of their own group while the teacher passes from 
one group to the next. This not only gives a pupil an oppor- 
tunity to read material suited to his own ability to comprehend, 
but it gives him much more frequent opportunity to read than 
under ordinary classroom methods. He spends less time in hear- 
ing some one else read what is no longer of interest to him. The 
other phase of the reading method in this school which accounts 
for the unusual ability of the children is the large amount of 
reading that is done in the course of a school year. As a re- 
sult, in part at least, of the frequent opportunity that children 
have to read under the grouping system, they read much more 
than the average number of books. They learn to read hy read- 
ing. 

Certainly the success attained in the school to which we have 
just referred should commend the method for trial in other 
school systems. The writer's observation leads him to believe 
that the mediocre results obtained in several of the schools is 
to be accounted for in part by the niggardly policy adopted by 
school boards toward the purchase of sufficient reading material. 
In some schools the children read onlv one-half or one-third as 



Reading 111 

many books as in others. When superintendents are asked to 
account for it, their usual reply is, that the board has been un- 
willing to purchase additional material, and that teachers do 
not feel warranted in asking pupils to purchase books whicli 
they will use but a few short weeks. Such an undemocratic pol- 
icy on the part of boards of education cannot be too severely 
condemned. 

A policy since adopted to meet this situation in one of these 
schools is worthy of note. On the strength of recommendations 
made, the board purchased a number of sets of supplementary 
readers but not in sufficient quantity to provide all buidings 
Avith a set of each. Provision is made for systematic exchange 
of sets between buildings. On a certain day of each week, 
known as "book exchange" day, sets that have been completed 
are forwarded to the superintendent's office which acts as a clear- 
ing house. These sets are apportioned to different buildings by 
the supervisor of grades. At the close of the afternoon session, 
messenger boys from these schools come for the books which are 
thus available for use on the following day. While this system 
is especially adapted to use in large school systems, it can be 
employed to a limited extent by small schools in neighboring 
villages. At the comparatively small additional cost of trans- 
portation, two small schools could under a cooperative arrange- 
ment double the number of books available. 

The Distrihufion of Scores 

How well does the reading of some children in a grade com- 
pare with that of others 1 Table 45 serves to indicate the varia- 
tions in reading achievement for the children in each grade. 
Comparatively few teachers would admit offhand that such 
marked variations are possible within a grade. . Yet the table 
confronts us with the^ facts. A few of the very low scores, par- 
ticularly in the third grade, may be due to failure to under- 
stand what was wanted. But no such explanation can account 
for the fact that the best third grade readers attained a score 
four times that of the standard median for their grade. In 
each of the other grades there are children whose score was 
nearly three times that of the standard median for their grade. 
A considerable proportion of each grade failed to attain a score 
half as large as the expected standard. Moreover, an unusual 



112 



The Use of Some Standard Tests 



proportion in each elementary grade did better than many chil- 
dren in grades above. More than one-fifth of the children in the 
third grade read better than the poorer half of the fourth grade. 
Similarly, nearly one-fifth of the fourth grade surpassed the 
poorer half of the fifth grade. More than a third of the sixth 
grade excelled the lower half of the seventh and a third of the 
seventh grade pupils read better than median eighth grade chil- 



Table 45. 



-Distribution of Scores in Kansas Silent Reading Test For 
11 Cities 



Store 


Test I 


Test II 


Test III 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


0- .9 


193 
163 

139 
84 
126 
183 
125 
82 
56 
45 
29 
12 
4 
1 


46 

42 

61 

54 

71 

176 

187 

158 

144 

122 

73 

47 

17 

4 

4 

2 


5 
11 
13 

14 
31 
69 
118 
148 
i74 
218 
201 

in9 

87 
21 
12 

10 
4 


2 

2 

5 

13 

18 

46 

115 

121 

126 

115 

14.5 

144 

71 

44 

24 

31 

2 

2 


4 

1 

3 

8 

5 

41 

67 

90 

114 

110 

182 

156 

127 

89 

55 

69 

n 

2 
2 




2 








1- 1.9 








2- 2.9 


■i 

6 

7 

15 

37 

44 

67 

85 

161 

164 

163 

96 

55 

93 

34 

5 

4 

2 


1 

1 

5 
5 
11 
17 
14 
37 
31 
25 
34 
19 
31 
10 
8 








a- 3.9 


1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

5 

5 

23 

17 

14 

18 

10 

31 

7 

6 

2 

3 

1 


1 




4- 4.9 




5- 6.9 


1 




7- 8.9 




9-10.9 


2 

6 

5 

11 

8 

11 

16 

14 

21 

4 

12 

2 

5 

1 


1 


11-12.9 




13-14.9 


o 


15-17.9 


5 


•18-20.9 


10 


21-23.9 


3 


24-26.9 


14 


27-29.9 

■^0-34.9 


6 
13 


35-39.9 




3 


40-44.9 






5 


45-49 9 










50-59 9 










2 


60-69 9 












70 79 9 














1 
2 


















1 


1 


1 


















Total 


1,242 
4.3 

5.3 


1,208 
8.6 

9.5 


1,305 
13.6 

13.2 


1,026 
14.1 

13.9 


1,137 
17.1 

16.2 


1,040 
19.8 

19.2 


254 
21.4 

22.7 


IbO 

24.7 

24.7 


1-21 
26.0 

26.1 


66 
26.4 


Standard 
Medran 


28.3 



dren. Were these children who exceed the median of the grade 
above to be grouped with the upper half of the higher grade for 
purposes of reading, in every school, there is good reason to be- 
lieve that better reading results would be obtained than under 
present conditions. This has been attempted in one school sys- 
tem to the writers knowledge with satisfactory results. 

It would seem either that ability to read plays little part in 
determining promotion, or that teachers diifer widely in the de- 
gree of reading development required for promotion. Both 
factors very likely help to account for the extreme variations 
in the reading ability of pupils nominally in the same grade. 



Reading 113 

Many too, fail to recognize the true abilities of their pupils. 
This may be illustrated from an inquiry made by the writer re- 
garding one of the two eighth grade pupils whose score on the 
test fell between 50 and 59.9. The teacher when asked how she 
accounted for the unusual score of this boy, replied that he was 
not a bright boy at all. But upon further questioning she ad- 
mitted that he was a strong pupil in all work requiring thought. 
He was not fluent in oral reading and was afflicted somewhat 
with "bashfulness". She had formed her estimate upon surface 
qualities alone. No doubt many teachers have revised their 
opinions of a number of their pupils as a result of the test. The 
use of various standard tests is recommended for that purpose. 
Regardless of whether or not teachers have judged the ability 
of their pupils accurately, or have promoted wisely, the condi- 
tion of wide differences in reading ability among these pupils 
is an actual and present fact, which needs to be taken into ac- 
count in planning work for them. The condition which Table 
45 reveals is particularly serious as it applies to the eighth grade. 
These children are about to enter high school very unequally 
prepared to undertake the study of English and other secondary 
school subjects. Definite training in reading in the high school 
for some, will be perhaps the most economical means of meeting 
this situation, and is therefore recommended. Some of the in- 
dividual differences, shown by Table 45, have resulted from the 
teaching, others from inequalities in the native endowments of 
the children. Teachers must be brought to see that equal ef- 
forts on their part, or on the part of pupils often produce very 
unequal results. Some of these children have had the advan- 
tage of better teaching, but others have probably acquired greater 
facility in reading with no greater effort, simply because they 
were more richly endowed by nature. In order that no mis- 
takes may be made in estimating the ability of the individuals 
in a class as the result of a single test, other standard reading 
tests should be applied. A composite result of several tests will 
afford a much more satisfactory diagnosis of individual ability 
in reading than a single test. When a satisfactory diagnosis 
of the reading abilities of each child has been made his work 
should be planned accordingly. Children of somewhere near 
equal attainments or interests may be grouped together tem- 
porarily. These groups may be flexible and readily changed. 



114 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

Not all children in the class need be required to read the same 
material, or need be expected to progress at the same rate. 

What elements in the teaching of reading, or in the reading 
needs of children, contribute to differences in their reading ac- 
quirements? 

Good readers will be found to differ from poor readers in 
knowledge of the mechanics of reading. As a result of insuffi- 
cient familiarity with the mechanics, the poor reader spends 
much of his time in puzzling out the pronunciation of words. 
This serves to distract him from the thought of what he reads. 
The good reader proceeds uninterrupted and is able to retain 
what he reads as an organized whole, and to reflect upon it. 

The poor reader is often handicapped by a lack of knowledge 
of the meanings of words. Until he understands their meaning 
he has little hope of getting the thought of what he reads. Hence 
arises the need for selecting different reading materials for each 
of the different groups of the class. All need not read the same 
stories or even the same books. Poor readers should be given 
material within the range of their comprehension, introducing 
only a few words at a time that are new to them. It is poor 
economy. to select material so difficult that only the brightest 
can enjoy it. 

Pupils differ in their ability to grasp the thought of what they 
read. Gray in his study of reading in the St. Louis schools 
found that even though pupils might be equally proficient in 
their mastery of mechanics they might differ materially in their 
ability to master the thought. Some can apparently reflect upon 
the story as a whole while others can deal only with very small 
parts of it. Their ability to organize their ideas as to the worth 
of what they have read differs. Wide differences will be found 
in the amounts which they can remember of what is read. 

A marked difference will be found in the rates of their oral 
and silent reading. This fact undoubtedly accounts in part for 
the wide variations in reading scores shown in Table II. Some 
pupils acquire habits of slow reading early in their school course 
and remain slow readers often for life. Gray in his study of 
reading in the St. Louis schools found that in some classes the 
rate of oral reading for the most rapid readers was more than 
four times as great as that of the slowest. The writer has found 



Reading 115 

that the most rapid readers in a class seldom read less than 
three times as much as the slowest in the same time. 

Finally differences in interests should be taken into account. 
Interesting material is a prerequisite to all good reading. The 
type of story that is most appealing to boys in intermediate and 
grammar grades is often quite different from that which appeals 
to girls. This is a matter of common knowledge among libra- 
rians in children's departments of our public libraries. To be 
of most service, reading material for children reared in foreign 
language homes should involve experiences which they can ap- 
preciate. 

Factors in teaching which account for differences in the re- 
sults obtained are several. Among the most important of these 
is the attention given to preparation. Too many teachers make 
little preparation for the day's lesson. They trust largely to 
their memory for the story of the lesson, instead of preparing 
a number of motivating questions which will require pupils to do 
reflective thinking about today's lesson or that will help them 
to prepare tomorrow's lesson. Too frequently their questions 
are of the trivial, ''who was John?" sort. They are such as 
occur to them at the moment and lack any deep seated purpose. 
The teacher who asked her children how they would paint the 
story in today's lesson, or how they would dramatize it, broached 
questions that required her pupils to do reflective thinking. 
Such questions not only supply pupils with a motive but require 
them to organize, to weigh values, to exercise judgment, to select 
essentials from nonessentials, and provide them with opportun- 
ity for the exercise of initiative. 

A second important factor is the teachers familiarity with the 
field of reading material. Too often teachers are unacquainted 
with the best available material for children. Rarely do they 
have anything like an adequate acquaintance with the literature 
best adapted to children of various interests. 

Another important factor sometimes resulting in a handicap 
to children is the teacher's lack of facility in teaching the me- 
chanics of reading. She is unable to give pupils the help re- 
quired to master new situations. Poor readers frequently are 
permitted to spend undue time in pondering over the pronuncia- 
tion of a word. The result is that less time is left for reading. 
Pupils can often be made more independent by the acquisition 



116 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

of a few simple rules or by being taught to look for parts of a 
word that are familiar. 

The aims in primary reading established by a school are a mat- 
ter for serious consideration. Many teachers, particularly those 
enamored by certain well advertised schemes of teaching prim- 
ary reading, insist that the sole purpose is to develop ability to 
use the mechanics of reading. Others wisely train children to 
get the thought of the story from the beginning, as well as to 
master the mechanics. Gray after his study of the reading 
achievements of the children in Cleveland, Grand Rapids and 
St. Louis concludes : ' ' It is evident that of two schools, the one 
which masters the mechanics as it is developing in its power to 
interpret the printed page will rank superior in general reading 
ability to the school which masters mechanics alone. "^ 

If good reading is desired it is important that pupils spend 
the reading period in reading. Easy reading is much to be pre- 
ferred to material that makes the recitation a word stumbling 
exercise. Pupils should read material because it appeals to their 
imagination, because it is entertaining, or because it gives them 
useful information, and not for practice in mere word calling. In 
one of the schools tested the writer observed a third grade read- 
ing exercise in which most of the children spent more time in 
waiting to be told the pronunciation of words than in actual read- 
ing. Approximately one-third of the recitation period had been 
spent in acquiring the pronunciation of difficult words. This 
was followed by oral reading. The first boy called upon hesi- 
tated on the third word encountered. The class pronounced it 
for him. He hesitated again after reading three words farther. 
He continued thus until he had finished two or three lines. A 
second pupil did much the same. A third read a paragraph 
fluently without error. A fourth and a fifth read much as the 
first two. Another was able to read a paragraph without help. 
Here the lesson closed without a comment having been made by 
the teacher or pupils. Four additional pages were assigned 
for the next day's lesson. The story, that of "The Meadow 
Mouse, ' ' would have been interesting to children more advanced 
than these. As it was, very little practice in reading was being 



^Gray: Chapter on Reading in the Survey of the St. Louis PubHc Schools, 



Reading 117 

given, and that of a kind not designed to make thoughtful 
readers. 

Much of the material which children are called upon to read 
lacks vitalizing interest. It is of a kind not intended to result 
in reflective thinking. Teachers often need to exercise choice. 
Keading texts need not be followed slavishly. Unappealing 
stories need to be omitted or made appealing by the teacher's en- 
largement upon them. Unusually good stories, not in the read- 
ers in use, may often be mimeographed or written upon the 
board. 

Few teachers seem to realize that a' reading recitation can be 
conducted in any other way than as an oral exercise in which 
each pupil reads a few lines in turn. More practice in both oral 
and silent reading is needed. In the ordinary class a pupil has 
opportunity to read once during the recitation period. If he is one 
out of a class of twenty, he is occupied about one-twentieth of 
the time of the reading period in oral reading practice. What 
more glaring illustration of inefficiency could be found than this 1 
Such procedure not only affords negligible practice in oral 
reading but it requires a pupil to listen to the re-reading of ma- 
terial no longer of interest to him. In addition it deprives him 
of valuable time that could otherwise be spent in silent reading. 
Sectioning the class into small groups is one means of securing 
for the pupils more practice in oral reading. Another method 
is that of allowing a pupil who has a new and well prepared 
story to read it to the class. The child who reads to his class in 
this manner has a motive for developing good expression and 
his classmates have a motive for listening. Some class periods 
should be spent in silent reading. To center attention upon the 
thought of what is read the teacher may at times prepare well 
directed questions to accompany the exercise. 

Facility in rapid thought getting can be increased by the fre- 
quent use of practice exercises. The teacher may assign a new 
selection, or mimeographed copies of selected paragraphs may be 
distributed. At the end of one minute, or some other definite 
period, pupils may be asked to write answers to questions which 
the teacher has prepared, or they may be asked to reproduce 
what they can remember. The results should be made the basis 
for a study of individual needs. 



118 The Use of Some Standard Tests 

Emphasis upon rapid reading, particularly in the lower grades 
should be insisted upon by supervisors. Many of the low scores 
that were made in the test are undoubtedly due to the fact that 
pupils have been permitted from the beginning to choose their 
own rate. As the result the habit of slow reading has become 
strongly fixed. 

Finally the need of definite standards in reading attainments 
should be mentioned. Many teachers fail to develop good read- 
ers because they are unaware of the fact that their puj)ils have 
made less than average progress. Not only should definite class 
standards be set but each pupil should know how his record 
compares with the standard for the class. How well a class 
reads may be measured by applying standard reading tests. 
Records on these tests should be kept prominently before the 
class. Subsequent progress may be determined by the use of 
tests of similar design. 

Some Suggested References 
Discussions on the Measurement of Reading 

Brown, H. A. The Measurement of Efficiency of Instruction in Read- 
ing. Elementary School Teacher, Vol. XIV, June 1914. 

Brown, H. A. The Measurement of Alility to Read. Bureau of Re- 
search. Bulletin No. 1. New Hampshire Department of Public 
Instruction. 

Gray, W. S. Methods of Testing Reading. Elementary School Journal, 
January 1916, February 1916. See also issues of November and 
December 1916. 

Gray, W. S. Studies of Elementary School Reading Through Standard- 
ized Tests. Supplementary Educational Monograph No. 1. Chi- 
cago University Press. 

Gray, W. S. Reading. Survey of the St. Loiiis Public Schools, Vol. II. 

Haggerty, M. E. Scales for Reading Vocabulary of Primary Children. 
Elementary School Journal, October 1916. 

Haggerty, M. E. The Ability to Read: Its Measurements and Some 
Factors Conditioning it. Indiana University Studies No. 34. 

Holmes, H. W. and Others. Harvard Bulletin in Education, No. 5, 
June 1917. Contains bibliography of measurement in elementary 
school subjects. Harvard University. 

Judd, C. H. Measuring the Work of the Schools. Cleveland Survey 
Reading, Russell Sage Foundation, N. Y. 

Judd, C. H. The 15th Tear Book of the National Society for the Study 
of Education, Fart I, Reading 1916. 

Kelley, F.. J. The Kansas Reading Tests. Journal of Educational 
Psychology. February 1916. 

Kelley, F. J. The Kansas Silent Reading Test. Kansas State Normal, 
. Emporia, Kansas. Bulletin No. 7, Vol. IV, New Series. 

Monroe, W. S. A Report on the Use of the Kansas Silent Reading 
Tests. Journal of Educational Psychology, Dec. 1917. 



Reading 119 

National Society for the Study of Education, llth Year Book, Part II. 
Contains a good bibliography of references on the measurement 
of reading and other subjects. Public School Publishing Co., 
Bloomington, Illinois. 

Thorndike, B. L. An Improved Scale for Measuring' Ability in Read- 
ing. Teachers College Record, Nov. 1915, Jan. 1916. 

Thorndike, E. L. Measurement of Achievement in Reading: Word 
Knowledge. Teachers College Record, Nov. 1916. 

Thorndike, E. L. Reading as Reasoning: A Study of Mistakes in 
Paragraph Reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, June 
1917. 

Thorndike, E. L. The Understanding of Sentences: A Study of Errors 
in Reading. Elementary School Journal, Oct. 1917. 

Uhl, W. L. The Use of Results of Reading Tests as a Basis for Plan- 
ning Remedial Work. Elementary School Journal, Dec. 1916. 

Zirbes, Laura. Diagnostic Measurement as a Basis for Procedure. 
Elementary School Journal, March 1918. 

See also various school survey reports: Cleveland, Denver, Grand 
Rapids, Janesville, Nassau Co., N. Y., San Francisco. 

Selection of Reading Material. 

Dana, J. C. American Library Economy, Course of Study for Normal 
School Pupils on Literature for Children. Elm Tree Press, Wood- 
stock, Vermont. 

Gray, W. S. A Study of the Emphasis on Various Riases of Reading. 
Instruction in Two Cities. Elem. Sch. Jour., Nov. 1916. 

Kendall and Mirick. Hoiv to Teach the Fundamental Branches. What 
to Read. Hough1;on Mifflin Co. 

Munson & Hoskinson. Library and Supplementary Reading Books 
Recommended for Use in Elementary Schools. 16th Year Book, 
National Society for the Study of Education. Public School Pub. 
Co., Bloomington, 111. 

Standard Reading Tests 

Brown's Silent Redding Tests. Pres. H. A. Brown, State Normal 
School, Oshkosh, Wis. 

Fordyce's Scale for Measuring the Achievements in Reading. Univer- 
sity Publishing Company, Chicago. 

Gray's Reading Tests: Silent and Oral. Dean W. S. Gray, University 
of Chicago. 

Haggerty's Visual Vocabulary Tests. For Grades I and II. Bureau of 
Coop. Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. 

Haggerty's Reading Test; Understanding of Sentences. Scale Beta — a 
revision of Thorndike's Scale Alpha. Bureau of Coop. Research, 
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. 

Kansas Silent Reading Tests. Bureau of Educational Measurements and 
Standards, Emporia, Kansas. 

Monroe's Slandarized Tests in Silent Reading (a revision of the Kan- 
sas Silent Reading Tests.) Bureau of Educational Measurements 
and Standards, Emporia, Kansas. 

Starch's Silent Reading Tests. Daniel Starch, University of Wiscon- 
sin, Madison. 

Thorndike's Improved Scale for Measuring the Understanding of 
Sentences: Scale Alpha 2. Bureau of Publications, Teachers Col- 
lege, N. Y. 

Thorndike's Improved Scale for Word Knowledge or Visual Vocabu- 
lary: Scale A 2. series x and series y; Scale B. series x and series 
y, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, N. Y. 



120 The Use of Some Standard Tests 



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